was no necessity that he should be cleansed by fire. Folklore and legacy Origins Akbar-Birbal folk tales were passed on mainly by oral tradition. They focus on how Birbal manages to outsmart envious courtiers who try to trap and portray him in poor light in front of Akbar, often in a humorous manner with him shown giving sharp and intelligent responses. Others show his interactions with the Emperor which involve him trying to test Birbal's wit and Birbal making him realise his folly, which always ends with Akbar getting amused and impressed. He occasionally challenges Birbal by giving him a line of poetry which Birbal has to complete. Some of the other stories are simple humorous anecdotes. Getting an advantage in a seemingly impossible situation and making his challengers look silly are usual occurrences in these tales. According to C. M. Naim, the earliest known reference of Birbal's wit is in the 18th-century biographical dictionary, Ma'athir al-Umara in which he, thanks to his poetry and wit, becomes a member of Akbar's inner circle and gradually outranks all other courtiers. Naim draws a parallel between the Akbar-Birbal tales with others in Indian folklore involving a king and his quick-witted minister such as the Vijayanagara emperor, Krishnadevaraya and Tenali Ramakrishna and King Krishnachandra of Nadia and his barber, Gopal Bhar. In later years, a third character, Mulla Do-Piyaza began to appear. He was very likely a fictional character and was portrayed as Birbal's Muslim counterpart and a proponent of orthodox Islam. However, when viewed within the context of folkloric literature, these stories, much like other similar tales like those of Krishnadevaraya and Tenali Rama, make fun of the human imperfections in the character of the king and then offer a corrective to his behaviour. Historic role versus folklore In the folk tales, he is always portrayed as a pious Hindu, being elder than Akbar, and being morally strict in the midst of opposing Muslim courtiers, who are shown plotting against him; his success was only because of his skill and he convinces the Emperor to favour Hinduism over Islam. He is thus depicted as acquiring religious, political and personal influence over Akbar, using his intelligence and sharp tongue and never resorting to violence. However, historically he never played such a role. Badayuni mistrusted him but did mention that he was "having a considerable amount of capacity and genius". The Braj language poet,