print production. Line manager 'cascade' Sending information down the line to local supervisors, expecting them to deliver it without any corruption, interpretation or deviation has long been the main focus of 'cascaded' internal communications (for example, UK guidance from The Industrial Society, now The Work Foundation, focused on giving managers very clear instructions about what to say and how to say it). However, in recent years thinking has evolved and literature now concentrates on empowering managers to facilitate discussion rather than cascade management of messages which will have little authority or impact (this is a particularly strong theme in the writing of Larkin & Larkin). Clampitt (2005) lists three approaches managers use to communicate with their employees. Employee communication is an important skill for all line managers, irrespective of their seniority. Like any skill it requires training and development. Often, organizations do not invest the appropriate amount of time and effort in developing managers' communications skills. Too often this leads to managers abdicating responsibility for communications to their 'internal communications department' and a lack of confidence in facilitating discussion in their teams. This raises debate around the following issues: The nature of supervisory relationships and organizational communication The potency of managers as a channel of official communications How best to support managers in their roles FitzPatrick and Valskov argue that strong manager communication systems attempt to address five essential issues: Do managers understand that communication is part of their role - in general and on specific occasions or topics? Do managers have access to more detailed background or context - rather than just be supplied with the same material as their teams? Have managers received training or development to support their role? Are manager supplied with materials to make their task easier? What attention is given to their feedback? Social media Social media is becoming increasingly discussed in the field of internal communication. However, there is little documented, academic evidence of where it is being used successfully as part of a planned campaign of employee communications, and it is often confused with digital media. There are case studies published on a number of commercial websites including www.simply-communicate.com and www.melcrum.com, and there is a useful chapter on the subject by Tracy Playle in Ruck's Exploring Internal Communication. Other collaborative software Since 2012, several communication technologies usually classified as workplace group chat apps or collaborative software have emerged. Message design and production