set up a dual verbal-nonverbal memory trace by imaging to concrete words, but this is somewhat less likely than naming pictures, hence the lower memory for concrete words than pictures. Abstract words are difficult to image and hence are least likely to be dually coded. The expected additive memory benefit of dual coding has been confirmed in numerous experiments which also suggested that the nonverbal code is mnemonically stronger (contributes more to the additive effect) than the verbal code. References Anderson, J. R. (2005). Cognitive Psychology and its implications. New York: Worth Publishers. Mayer, R. E. & Moreno, R. (2003). Nine ways to reduce cognitive load in multimedia learning. Educational Psychologist, 38(1), 43-52. Moreno, R., & Mayer, R. E. (2000). A coherence effect in multimedia learning: the case for minimizing irrelevant sounds in the design of multimedia instructional messages. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92, 117-125. Paivio, A (1971). Imagery and verbal processes. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. Paivio, A (1986). Mental representations: a dual coding approach. Oxford. England: Oxford University Press. https://web.archive.org/web/20110221091503/http://www.lifecircles-inc.com/Learningtheories/IP/paivio.html Paivio, A. (1986). Mental representations: A dual coding approach. New York: Oxford University Press Ryu,J., Lai,t., Colaric, S., Cawley,J., & Aldag, H. (2000). Dual Coding Theory. Retrieved from the World Wide Web September 29, 2003 from http://www.coe.ecu.edu/ltdi/colaric/KB/Paivio.html 1925 births 2016 deaths Canadian bodybuilders Canadian people of Finnish descent Canadian psychologists Canadian cognitive scientists McGill University alumni People associated with physical culture University of Western Ontario faculty Sportspeople from Thunder Bay Presidents of the Canadian Psychological Association