eras Fossil evidence from these periods suggests that early arthropods, with unspecialized mandibular mouthparts, engaged in spore-feeding behavior. Unlike pollen, which is solely produced by flowering plants, spores are asexual reproductive particles produced by primitive organisms such as ferns, fungi, and bacteria. Palynivory, which is thought to have derived from early spore-feeders, emerged much later during the Pennsylvanian era (323 Mya – 299 Mya). Much of the evidence relating to palynivory evolution has been linked to a change in the structure of mandibular mouthparts, allowing for easier pollen collection. Such evidence can be found in Coleoptera (beetles), the most diverse group of palynivores, wherein species have developed mouthparts for pollen collection in addition to the evolution of early mandibular appendages into specialized structures assisting in pollen consumption. Furthermore, modern-day palynivore mouthpart adaptations can also be tied to the evolution of ancient palynivore mouthparts involved in nectar uptake. The beginnings of structures involved in nectar uptake can be found in early, unrelated insect clades. The evolution of these structures occurred in three distinct tracks: sponge-like labellum of flies and caddisflies, siphon structures in butterflies and moths, and glossa in wasps and bees. Within each track, further specialization of these structures has occurred. For example, in wasps and bees, eight variations of mouthpart structures incorporating glossa have been identified. The evolution of various structural and morphological adaptations of present-day palynivores has also been thought to have co-evolved with pollen grains. The abundance and diversity of seed-bearing plant fossils identified from the Late Pennsylvanian suggest greater palynivore evolution and adaptations to the evolving plant fauna. Furthermore, this highlights the co-evolution of this behavior with plant species at the time. Based on the morphological features of fossil remnants of the era, early palynivores are hypothesized to have belonged to the diaphanopterodean, protorthopteran, and hemipteroid taxonomic groups. Following this period, evolution and more specialized adaptations in palynivore mouthparts and pollen or prepollen found in the gut of fossilized insects showed convergence into three major lineages: Orthoptera (grasshoppers, crickets, and locusts), Coleoptera, Diptera (flies), and Hymenoptera (wasps, sawflies, bees, and ants). Currently, almost all palynivores are in five insect orders believed to have come about during the early Mesozoic period (248 Mya - 65 Mya): Coleoptera, Diptera, Thysanoptera (thrips), Hymenoptera, and Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths). Adaptations of palynivores Numerous species of insects (bees, wasps, ants, beetles, flies, butterflies, moths), mites, spiders, and birds consume pollen as