lower jaw is not very evident. Habitat Living in freshwater, emerald shiners are benthopelagic. They live in large open rivers, lakes, and reservoirs. In medium-sized habitats the temperature preference for the shiner is 25 °C (77 °F), and they are tolerant of low oxygen levels. It is a midwater or near-surface species that usually lives in large or moderately sized schools. Some shiners are tolerant of turbidity in streams, but others avoid turbid streams. They are most commonly seen in clear water over sand or gravel. Diet habits Shiners are planktivores, feeding on a variety of zooplankton, protozoans and diatoms. They move with a planktonic food source up toward the surface at dusk, and move back down at dawn. Both aquatic and terrestrial insects obtained at the surface of the water are a small portion of their diet. Algae and plants are also eaten, during spring especially. Importance to humans Emerald shiners are used for fishing bait, especially for winter fishing because of the shiner's hardiness in cold weather. They are also an important resource for other animals to forage. The glistening sides of the shiner, along with its graceful movements make it a good aquarium fish. Conservation status Currently, this species is of relatively low conservation concern and does not require significant additional protection or major management, monitoring, or research action. The IUCN Red List status of the emerald shiner is of least concern. Other than being caught for use in fish bait, emerald shiners are preyed upon by birds (gulls, terns, mergansers, cormorants) and fishes. Life span The maximum reported age of emerald shiners is four to five years. Females live longer than males, and all older fish that have been found were female. Reproduction Emerald shiners are oviparous. Females have been known to spawn anywhere from late spring (mid-May) to late summer (mid-August). Spawning is temperature dependent, and begins around 22.2 °C (72.0 °F). This is known as the threshold temperature. In Canada, females have been found to spawn in temperatures ranging from 20.1–23.2 °C (68.2–73.8 °F). Emerald shiners tend to spawn near the surface in open water near boulders and gravel shoals. Eggs usually hatch between 24–32 hours. They are pelagic spawners with numerous buoyant eggs that have none or poorly-developed respiratory organs, and little pigment. Spawning occurs at night, about 1 to 2 feet below the surface, milling and darting in a circular path. Smaller