that cheating can exist as a mixed strategy with mutualism using a mathematical game model. Thus, cheating can arise and be maintained in mutualistic populations. Examples Studies of cheating and dishonest communication in populations presupposes an organismal system that cooperates. Without a collective population that has signaling and interactions among individuals, behaviors such as cheating do not manifest. In other words, in order to study cheating behavior, a model system that engages in cooperation is needed. Models that provide insight on cheating include the social amoeba Dictyostelium discoideum; eusocial insects, such as ants, bees, and wasps; and inter-specific interactions found in cleaning mutualisms. Common examples of cleaning mutualisms include cleaner fish such as wrasses and gobies, and some cleaner shrimp. In Dictyostelium discoideum Dictyostelium discoideum is a widely used model for cooperation and the development of multicellularity. This species of amoeba are most commonly found in a haploid, single-celled state that feed independently and undergo asexual reproduction. However, when the scarcity of food sources cause individual cells to starve, roughly 10⁴ to 10⁵ cells aggregate to form a mobile, multicellular structure dubbed a "slug". In the wild, aggregates generally contain multiple genotypes, resulting in chimeric mixtures. Unlike clonal (genetically identical) aggregates typically found in multicellular organisms, the potential for competition exists in chimeric aggregates. For example, because individuals in the aggregate contain different genomes, differences in fitness can result in conflict of interest among cells in the aggregate, where different genotypes could potentially compete against each other for resources and reproduction. In Dictyostelium discoideum, roughly 20% of the cells in the aggregate become dead to make the stalk of a fruiting body. The remaining 80% of cells become spores in the sorus of the fruiting body, which can germinate again once conditions are more favorable. In this case, 20% of the cells must give up reproduction so that fruiting body forms successfully. This makes chimeric aggregates of Dictyostelium discoideum susceptible to cheating individuals that take advantage of the reproductive behavior without paying the fair price. In other words, if certain individuals tend to become a part of the sorus more frequently, they can gain increased benefit from the fruiting body system without sacrificing their own opportunities to reproduce. Cheating behavior in D. discoideum is well established, and many studies have attempted to elucidate the evolutionary and genetic mechanisms underlying the behavior. Having a 34Mb genome that is completely sequenced and