Kavalan (also known as Kvalan, Kebalan or Kbalan) was formerly spoken in the Northeast coast area of Taiwan by the Kavalan people (噶瑪蘭). It is an East Formosan language of the Austronesian family. Kavalan is no longer spoken in its original area. As of 1930, it was used only as a home language. As of 1987, it was still spoken in Atayal territories. In 2000, this language was still reported to be spoken by 24 speakers but considered moribund. In 2017, a study using the EDGE metric from species conservation found that Kavalan, although critically endangered, was among the most lexically distinct of Austronesian languages. Dialects Kavalan consists of the following speech communities ordered from north to south: Kariawan (Jialiwan 加禮宛) – near Hualien, a formerly Sakizaya-speaking area Patʀungan (Xinshe 新社) – located in Fungpin (豐濱鄉), Hualien Kulis (Lide 立德) Kralut (Zhangyuan 樟原) These speech communities in eastern Taiwan were named after older settlements from the north, such as Kariawan, Sahut, and Tamayan, where the Kavalan people originally migrated from. Modern-day Kavalan speakers are surrounded by the Amis. Tsuchida (1985) notes that word lists collected from Lamkham 南崁 (Nankan) and Poting 埔頂 (Buding) are closest to Kavalan, while Li (2001) counts them as 'Basaic' languages. Many Kavalan can also speak Amis, Taiwanese, Mandarin, and Japanese. Phonology There are 15 consonants and 4 vowels in Kavalan. In Kavalan, Proto-Austronesian phonemes have merged as follows: *n, *N, *j, *ɲ as n *t, *T, *c as t *d, *D, *Z as z *s, *S as s *q, *ʔ, *H are deleted The following Proto-Austronesian phonemes are split: *k into q and k *l into r and ʁ (written as R) *a into i (if adjacent to q) and a The Kavalan language is also notable for having a large inventory of consonant clusters. It is also one of the only two Formosan languages that has geminate consonants, with the other one being Basay. Consonant gemination is also common in the northern Philippine languages, but is non-existent in the Central Philippine languages except for Rinconada Bikol. Grammar Morphology Kavalan nouns and verbs are distinguished by the lack of /a/ in the first syllable (nouns) or presence of /a/ (verbs). Kavalan syllables take on the structure . Kavalan is also one of two Formosan languages to have geminating consonants. Kavalan affixes include: m- (agent focus) -um-/-m- (agent focus) -in/-n- as variants of ni- (patient) -a