mayor than whites and blacks in more integrated places, which makes them less able to build consensus. The lack of consensus leads to lower levels of public spending. Costs In April 2017, the Metropolitan Planning Council in Chicago and the Urban Institute, a think-tank located in Washington, DC, released a study estimating that racial and economic segregation is costing the United States billions of dollars every year. Statistics (1990–2010) from at least 100 urban hubs were analyzed. This study reported that segregation affecting Blacks economically was associated with higher rates of homicide. Caste system Scholars including W. Lloyd Warner, Gerald Berreman, and Isabel Wilkerson have described the pervasive practice of racial segregation in America as an aspect of a caste system proper to the United States. In her 2020 book Caste: The Origins of Our Discontents, Wilkerson described the system of racial segregation and discrimination in the United States as one example of a caste system by comparing it to the caste systems of India and Nazi Germany. In her view, the three systems all exhibit the defining features of caste: divine or natural justification for the system, heritability of caste, endogamy, belief in purity, occupational hierarchy, dehumanization and stigmatization of lower castes, terror and cruelty as methods of enforcement and control, and the belief in the superiority of the dominant caste. See also African-American history Civil rights movement Apartheid Auto-segregation Baseball color line Black flight, into suburbs Black Lives Matter Black nationalism Black Power Black separatism Black supremacy Desegregation Ethnopluralism Housing Segregation Index of racism-related articles Judicial aspects of race in the United States List of anti-discrimination acts Lynching in the United States Mass racial violence in the United States Nadir of American race relations Office of Fair Housing and Equal Opportunity Plessy v. Ferguson Race and health Racial integration Racial segregation Racial segregation in Atlanta Racial segregation in the United States Armed Forces Racial segregation of churches in the United States Racial tension in Omaha, Nebraska Racism against African Americans in the U.S. military Racism in the United States Second-class citizen Segregated prom Separate but equal St. Augustine movement Symbolic racism Timeline of the civil rights movement References Sources Further reading Bond, Horace Mann. "The Extent and Character of Separate Schools in the United States." Journal of Negro Education 4 (July 1935): 321–327. . Chafe, William Henry, Raymond Gavins, and Robert Korstad, eds. Remembering Jim Crow: African Americans