his leadership, the Senussi Order spread to large parts of pagan and Islamic Africa, ultimately establishing approximately 146 zawaya and bringing the majority of Cyrenaica's Bedouins under the order's influence. During this time, "the Senussiya brought law and order, curbed raiding, encouraged peaceful trade, and promoted agriculture in a remarkable, civilizing mission amid highly unpromising surroundings." Muhammad al-Mahdi died in 1902 and his nephew, Ahmad al-Sharif assumed leadership of the Senussi Order. Despite fighting with Ottoman support against the European colonizers, Sharif and the Senussi order struggled to oppose French, British, and Italian expansion in the Sahara. In 1918, Ahmed al-Sharif went into exile in Turkey. Ahmed Sharif nominated Muhammad Idris as-Senussi, Mohammed El Senussi's great-uncle, who had already begun to play a leadership role in the Senussi Order, as his successor. Unlike his uncle who opted for military confrontation with the Italian and European colonialists, Muhammad Idris led the Senussi Order into negotiations with the Italians in 1916 and 1917, resulting in local autonomy for the Sanussi Order in Cyrenaica, and in 1920, the granting of the title of amir of Cyrenaica to Idris as-Senussi. When negotiations broke down, however, Idris and the Senussi Order emerged as British-allied leaders of the resistance to Italy's colonial occupation of Libya, culminating with Libya's independence, the first African state to achieve independence from European rule, in 1951. The United Nations authorized the formation of a federal system of government with the monarch, Idris as-Senussi, as the king and head of state. Idris as-Senussi served as the King of Libya from 1951 until 1969 when the military coup d'état led by Muammar Gaddafi took power in Libya. Heir to the Senussi Crown in Libya The 1951 Constitution established a hereditary monarchy based on King Idris and his male successors. Article 44 of the 1951 Constitution states: subject to what has been provided in Article 40, sovereignty shall be vested by the nation in trust with the King Mohammed Idris el Mahdi el Senussi and after him to his male heirs, the oldest after the oldest, degree after degree Article 45 of the 1951 Constitution states: the Throne of the Kingdom is hereditary in accordance with the two Royal Orders promulgated on 22nd of Safar 1374 H., and the 25th of Rabi'e el-Thani 1376 H., respectively. Each of these two Orders regulating the succession to the Throne shall have the same forces as an