in most cases still registered as Jewish, because the State is very reluctant to recognize such conversions, even though there is no law against them. Some changes in attitude have taken place, as Israeli society is becoming more accustomed to the presence of a variety of religious denominations. Another sensitivity is regarding Christians of Jewish origin who still regard themselves as Jewish – Messianic Jews – considered by both Jews and Christians to be a marginal movement. A significant aspect in Jewish–Christian and Jewish–Catholic relations in Israel is government policy. Ever since the foundation of the State of Israel in 1948, Judaism has been used in government policy and legislation as a means to give Israeli society a sense of identity. As a result, all matrimonial laws in Israel are religious, because no civil marriages can take place. Education is also segregated to a large degree between various religious denominations. Animosity towards Catholics of Jewish origin was displayed in 1995, when Cardinal Jean-Marie Lustiger visited Israel and the Chief Rabbi Yisrael Meir Lau publicly accused him of betraying the Jewish people. Vatican attitudes towards Israeli Catholics of Jewish origin have also shifted. From 1955, unofficial communities began performing the Mass in Hebrew with official Vatican endorsement. However, the Vatican has kept a low-key attitude towards this congregation, in order not to antagonize the Arabic-speaking Catholic community, which may not favor Catholics with pro-Jewish sentiments. The number of Israeli Catholics of non-Arab origin increased during the 1990s, due primarily to immigration from the former Soviet Union. As a result, the Vatican changed its policies in 2003, for the first time ordaining Jean-Baptiste Gourion as Auxiliary Bishop to overlook the Hebrew Catholic community in Israel. The appointment of David Neuhaus as vicar upon Gourion's death in 2003, however, is not in conformity with the importance that the Holy See ostensibly attributes to the newly emerging community. On the other hand, Neuhaus did participate in the Synod for Middle Eastern clergy as a special invitee of the Pope, and Hebrew – for the first time ever – was one of the official languages in which Radio Vatican covered the event. From 2017 to 2021, Father Rafic Nahra was the patriarchal vicar for Hebrew-speaking Catholics. Since August 2021, Piotr Zelazko is the new vicar for Hebrew-speaking Catholics. References Friedman, Elias (1987). Jewish Identity. New York: The Miriam Press. (HB), (PB). Stern, Rafael. (1978) "El