to start translating the RNA into a protein sequence, and where to stop — were discovered by postdoctoral fellow Joan A. Steitz. Crick suggested how the tRNA molecules — his original adaptors — read the messenger in his wobble hypothesis. Sanger devised new methods for sequencing RNA molecules and then later for DNA molecules (for which he received a second Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1980). Much later, this line was extended to include determining the sequence of whole genomes, in which John Sulston played a key role. How tRNA precursor molecules are processed to give a functional tRNA was elucidated by John Smith and Sid Altman, and this later led to the discovery of ribozymes. The atomic structure of the first tRNA molecule was solved and zinc fingers discovered by Klug (who received the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1982). The structure of the ATP synthase was solved by John E. Walker and Andrew Leslie, for which Walker shared the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1997. In 1990, Kiyoshi Nagai began working on deciphering the structure of the spliceosome, first using X-ray crystallography and later with cryogenic electron microscopy, and in 2016 his group published the first structure of the spliceosome captured in a fully active, substrate-bound state immediately following catalytic reaction. The structure of the ribosome was solved by Venkatraman Ramakrishnan, for which he shared the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 2009. 1960s: Development and C. elegans Towards the end of the 1960s decade, it seemed that new problems in biology could be solved using the approaches which proved so successful in molecular biology. Sydney Brenner started working on the genetics of the nematode C. elegans in 1965. This group expanded, especially with many foreign visitors who today form the core of C. elegans research. Sulston determined the cell lineage of this small worm and John Graham White the entire wiring diagram of its nervous system. Robert Horvitz, who helped in the cell lineage, was to share the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine with Brenner and Sulston in 2002. Jonathan Hodgkin established the genetic pathway in C. elegans which controls sex determination. John Gurdon developed the use of the frog oocyte to translate mRNAs, sharing the 2012 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine for his earlier work showing that genetic information remains intact during development. Peter Lawrence came to study pattern formation, helping discover how compartments in