will now reveal little to the casual observer of the abuse to this land in years past. Deer, wild turkey, bobcat, and beaver have returned and are plentiful. The refuge is now able to accomplish its primary objective; providing food and shelter for migratory waterfowl. The establishment of the Mingo Wilderness Area in 1976 helps ensure this protection for future generations of Americans. Topography About 25,000 years ago, the Mississippi River ran between the Ozark Mountains and a terrace called Crowley's Ridge. Then, around 18,000 years ago, the river shifted, slicing its way through Crowley's Ridge to join the Ohio River further north. The abandoned riverbed developed into a rich and fertile swamp. The refuge lies in a basin formed in an ancient abandoned channel of the Mississippi, bordered on the west by the foothills of the Ozark Mountains, and on the east by Crowley's Ridge. The refuge contains the only remaining large tract of bottomland forest of 15,000 acres (61 km2) from the original 2.5 million acres (10,000 km2) native to the bootheel of Missouri. There are seven natural areas and 99 archaeological sites. About 8000 acres (32 km2) of land are contained in the Mingo Wilderness. Additionally, the 6,190-acre (25-km2) Missouri Department of Conservation, Duck Creek Conservation Area, joins the refuge on the north and east boundary. Wildlife and protected species Mingo's primary goal is to protect wilderness resources and critical habitat for migratory waterfowl. Located in the center of the busy Mississippi Flyway, the refuge serves as an important resting and feeding area for migratory birds heading south. In addition to resident waterfowl species, Mingo provides for migrating ducks, geese, shorebirds, gulls, terns, loons, grebes, pelicans, cormorants, herons, bitterns, ibises, rails, coots, and swans. Over 95 species of migratory waterfowl have been seen at Mingo. Through year-round management of the water levels on the refuge, the feeding and resting requirements of migrating birds can be met. The refuge provides wintering habitat for over 150,000 ducks and 75,000 geese. Mingo also provides for other types of migratory and nonmigratory avian species. Over 250 species of birds have been seen at Mingo. Included in this list are the peregrine falcon, endangered whooping crane, and threatened bald eagle. Due to the diverse habitat, Mingo is home for a wide variety of lowland swamp species and upland forest and field species. Mingo is home to over 38 species of mammals, 23