pronunciations reconstructed by such means are used only by a few specialists in the language. For all other purposes, the Egyptological pronunciation is used, but it often bears little resemblance to what is known of how Egyptian was pronounced. Consonants The following consonants are reconstructed for Archaic (before 2600 BC) and Old Egyptian (2686–2181 BC), with IPA equivalents in square brackets if they differ from the usual transcription scheme: *Possibly unvoiced ejectives. has no independent representation in the hieroglyphic orthography, and it is frequently written as if it were or . That is probably because the standard for written Egyptian is based on a dialect in which had merged with other sonorants. Also, the rare cases of occurring are not represented. The phoneme is written as in initial position ( = 'father') and immediately after a stressed vowel ( = 'bad') and as word-medially immediately before a stressed vowel ( = 'you will appear') and are unmarked word-finally ( = 'father'). In Middle Egyptian (2055–1650 BC), a number of consonantal shifts take place. By the beginning of the Middle Kingdom period, and had merged, and the graphemes and are used interchangeably. In addition, had become word-initially in an unstressed syllable ( > "colour") and after a stressed vowel ( > '[the god] Apis'). In Late Egyptian (1069–700 BC), the phonemes d ḏ g gradually merge with their counterparts t ṯ k ( > Akkadian transcription ti-ba-an 'dbn-weight'). Also, ṯ ḏ often become , but they are retained in many lexemes; ꜣ becomes ; and become at the end of a stressed syllable and eventually null word-finally: > Akkadian transcription -pi-ta 'bow'. More changes occur in the 1st millennium BC and the first centuries AD, leading to Coptic (1st–17th centuries AD). In Sahidic ẖ ḫ ḥ had merged into š (most often from ḫ) and (most often ẖ ḥ). Bohairic and Akhmimic are more conservative and have a velar fricative ( in Bohairic, in Akhmimic). Pharyngeal *ꜥ had merged into glottal after it had affected the quality of the surrounding vowels. is not indicated orthographically unless it follows a stressed vowel; then, it is marked by doubling the vowel letter (except in Bohairic): Akhmimic , Sahidic and Lycopolitan šoʔp, Bohairic šoʔp 'to be' < ḫpr.w * 'has become'. The phoneme was probably pronounced as a fricative , becoming after a stressed vowel in syllables that had been closed in earlier Egyptian