using ice and flavored syrup. The origins of kakigōri date back the Heian period in Japanese history, when blocks of ice saved during the colder months would be shaved and served with sweet syrup to Japanese aristocracy during the summer. Kakigōri's origin is referred to in The Pillow Book, a book of observations written by Sei Shōnagon, who served the Imperial Court during the Heian period. The earliest known written process to artificially make ice is known not from culinary texts, but the 13th-century writings of Arab historian Ibn Abi Usaybi'a in his book Kitab Uyun al-anba fi tabaqat-al-atibba (Book of Sources of Information on the Classes of Physicians) concerning medicine in which Ibn Abu Usaybi’a attributes the process to an even older author, Ibn Bakhtawayhi, of whom nothing is known. Ice cream production became easier with the discovery of the endothermic effect. Prior to this, cream could be chilled easily but not frozen. It was the addition of salt, that lowered the melting point of ice, which had the effect of drawing heat from the cream and allowing it to freeze. South Asia In the sixteenth century, the Mughal Empire used relays of horsemen to bring ice from the Hindu Kush to its capital Delhi. The ice was used in fruit sorbets. It was also used to create kulfi, a popular frozen dairy dessert from the Indian subcontinent often described as "traditional Indian ice cream." Europe The technique of "freezing" is not known from any European sources prior to the 16th century. During the sixteenth century authors made reference to the refrigerant effect that happened when salt was added to ice causing it to freeze. But it wasn't until the latter part of the seventeenth century that sorbets and ice creams were made using this process. Ice cream's spread throughout Europe is sometimes attributed to Moorish traders, but more often to Marco Polo. Though it's not mentioned in any of his writings, Polo is often credited with introducing sorbet-style desserts to Italy after learning of it during his travels to China. The Italian duchess Catherine de' Medici is said to have introduced flavored sorbet ices to France when she brought some Italian chefs with her to France upon marrying the Duke of Orléans (Henry II of France) in 1533. One hundred years later, Charles I of England was reportedly so impressed by the "frozen snow" that he offered his