of the ghanima (booty) economy." Military Historian Paul Davis argued in 1999 "had the Muslims been victorious at Tours, it is difficult to suppose what population in Europe could have organized to resist them." Likewise, George Bruce in his update of Harbottle's classic military history Dictionary of Battles maintains that "Charles Martel defeated the Moslem army effectively ending Moslem attempts to conquer western Europe." History professor Antonio Santosuosso comments on Charles, Tours, and the subsequent campaigns against Rahman's son in 736–737, that these later defeats of invading Muslim armies were at least as important as Tours in their defense of Western Christendom and its monasteries, the centers of learning that ultimately led Europe out of her Middle Ages. He also makes an argument, after studying the Arab histories of the period, that these were armies of invasion sent by the Caliph not just to avenge Tours, but to begin the end of Christian Europe and bring it into the Caliphate. Professor of religion Huston Smith says in The World's Religions: Our Great Wisdom Traditions "But for their defeat by Charles Martel in the Battle of Tours in 732, the entire Western world might today be Muslim." Historian Robert Payne on page 142 in The History of Islam said "The more powerful Muslims and the spread of Islam were knocking on Europe's door. And the spread of Islam was stopped along the road between the towns of Tours and Poitiers, France, with just its head in Europe." Victor Davis Hanson has commented that Paul Davis, another modern historian, says "whether Charles Martel saved Europe for Christianity is a matter of some debate. What is sure, however, is that his victory ensured that the Franks would dominate Gaul for more than a century." Davis writes, "Moslem defeat ended the Moslems' threat to western Europe, and Frankish victory established the Franks as the dominant population in western Europe, establishing the dynasty that led to Charlemagne." Objecting to the significance of Tours as a world-altering event Other historians disagree with this assessment. Alessandro Barbero writes, "Today, historians tend to play down the significance of the battle of [Tours-Poitiers], pointing out that the purpose of the Muslim force defeated by Charles Martel was not to conquer the Frankish kingdom, but simply to pillage the wealthy monastery of St-Martin of Tours". Similarly, Tomaž Mastnak writes: The historian Philip Khuri Hitti believes that "In reality, nothing was