knowledge necessary for the management of municipal infrastructure led to the emergence of separate specialised institutions, including: For drainage: Chartered Institution of Water and Environmental Management, 1895 For town planning: Town Planning Institute 1914 ... subsequently becoming the Royal Town Planning Institute For street lighting: Association of Public Lighting Engineers, 1934...subsequently becoming the Institution of Lighting Engineers For highway engineering: Institution of Highways and Transportation, 1930 For public housing: Institute of Housing, 1931 In 1984 the Institution of Municipal Engineers merged with the Institution of Civil Engineers. Since the 1970s, there has been a global trend toward increasing privatisation and outsourcing of municipal engineering services. In the UK in the 1990s a change in management philosophy brought the demise of the traditional organisational structure of boroughs where the three functions of town clerk, borough treasurer and borough engineer were replaced by an administrative structure with a larger number of specialised departments. In the late 1990s and early 21st century there was increasing dissatisfaction over what was perceived to be fractured and dysfunctional public services designed along narrow specialties. A more holistic approach to urban engineering began to emerge as an alternative concept. Critics of the specialised approach included the Commission for Architecture and the Built Environment that complained that the specialised approach to management of the public realm focussed too much on the on efficient movement of vehicles rather than the more general interests of local communities. Professional practice In the United Kingdom there is no longer any formal professional qualification in municipal engineering although there are degree courses available in urban engineering. A professional certificate in Urban Engineering is available from through the Institution of Incorporated Engineers via the Public Realm Information and Advice Network. The British Institution of Civil Engineers (ICE) caters to practitioners employed in the public sector, private consultancy and academia through its Proceedings Journal Municipal Engineer. The journal, first published in 1873, has a global scope and covers the whole life cycle of municipal services addressing technical, political and community issues. In addition an Expert Panel responds on behalf of ICE to Government consultations and is represented on the International Federation of Municipal Engineering. International organization The International Federation of Municipal Engineering (IFME) is an organisation comprising professional municipal engineers from all round the world. IFME's mission is to connect municipal engineers, public works professionals, public agencies, institutions and businesses around the world in order