balance constructs are included. The processes used to build the intervention are rarely stage-matched and short cuts are taken by classifying participants in a pre-action stage, which summarises the precontemplation, contemplation and preparation stage, and an action/maintenance stage. More generally, TTM has been criticised within various domains due to the limitations in the research designs. For example, many studies supporting the model have been cross-sectional, but longitudinal study data would allow for stronger causal inferences. Another point of criticism is raised in a 2002 review, where the model's stages were characterized as "not mutually exclusive". Furthermore, there was "scant evidence of sequential movement through discrete stages". While research suggests that movement through the stages of change is not always linear, a study of smoking cessation conducted in 1996 demonstrated that the probability of forward stage movement is greater than the probability of backward stage movement. Due to the variations in use, implementation and type of research designs, data confirming TTM are ambiguous. More care has to be taken in using a sufficient amount of constructs, trustworthy measures, and longitudinal data. See also Change management Decision cycle Notes The following notes summarize major differences between the well-known 1983, 1992, and 1997 versions of the model. Other published versions may contain other differences. For example, Prochaska, Prochaska, and Levesque (2001) do not mention the Termination stage, Self-efficacy, or Temptation. References Further reading Prochaska, JO; DiClemente, CC. The transtheoretical approach: crossing traditional boundaries of therapy. Homewood, IL: Dow Jones-Irwin; 1984. . Miller, WR; Heather, N. (eds.). Treating addictive behaviors. 2nd ed. New York: Plenum Press; 1998. . Velasquez, MM. Group treatment for substance abuse: a stages-of-change therapy manual. New York: Guilford Press; 2001. . Burbank, PM; Riebe, D. Promoting exercise and behavior change in older adults: interventions with the transtheoretical model. New York: Springer; 2002. . Prochaska, J. O., & Norcross, J. C. (2002). Stages of change. In J. C. Norcross (Ed.), Psychotherapy relationships that work (303-313). New York: Oxford University Press. DiClemente, CC. Addiction and change: how addictions develop and addicted people recover. New York: Guilford Press; 2003. . Glanz, K; Rimer, BK; Viswanath, K. (eds.) Health behavior and health education: theory, research, and practice, 4th ed. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass; 2008. . Connors, GJ; Donovan, DM; DiClemente, CC. Substance abuse treatment and the stages of change: selecting and planning interventions. 2nd ed. New York: Guilford Press, 2013. . Prochaska, JO; Norcross,