collection electrode. Therefore, a relatively weak electric field, of several thousand volts, is maintained across the dust layer. Collected dust particles with low resistance do not adhere strongly enough to the collection plate. They are easily dislodged and become retained in the gas stream. The electrical conductivity of a bulk layer of particles depends on both surface and volume factors. Volume conduction, or the motions of electrical charges through the interiors of particles, depends mainly on the composition and temperature of the particles. In the higher temperature regions, above , volume conduction controls the conduction mechanism. Volume conduction also involves ancillary factors, such as compression of the particle layer, particle size and shape, and surface properties. Volume conduction is represented in the figures as a straight-line at temperatures above . At temperatures below about , electrical charges begin to flow across surface moisture and chemical films adsorbed onto the particles. Surface conduction begins to lower the resistivity values and bend the curve downward at temperatures below . These films usually differ both physically and chemically from the interiors of the particles owing to adsorption phenomena. Theoretical calculations indicate that moisture films only a few molecules thick are adequate to provide the desired surface conductivity. Surface conduction on particles is closely related to surface-leakage currents occurring on electrical insulators, which have been extensively studied. An interesting practical application of surface-leakage is the determination of dew point by measurement of the current between adjacent electrodes mounted on a glass surface. A sharp rise in current signals the formation of a moisture film on the glass. This method has been used effectively for determining the marked rise in dew point, which occurs when small amounts of sulfuric acid vapor are added to an atmosphere (commercial Dewpoint Meters are available on the market). The following discussion of normal, high, and low resistance applies to ESPs operated in a dry state; resistance is not a problem in the operation of wet ESPs because of the moisture concentration in the ESP. The relationship between moisture content and resistance is explained later in this work. Normal resistivity As stated above, ESPs work best under normal resistivity conditions. Particles with normal resistivity do not rapidly lose their charge on arrival at the collection electrode. These particles slowly leak their charge to grounded plates and are retained on the collection plates by intermolecular adhesive and cohesive forces. This allows