The Treaty of Breda (1650) was signed on 1 May 1650 between Charles II, exiled king of England, Scotland and Ireland, and the Scottish Covenanter government. Under its terms, they agreed to install Charles II as King of Scotland and Britain, while Charles undertook to establish a Presbyterian Church of England, and guarantee the rights of the Church of Scotland. The Scots had previously allied with English Royalists to restore Charles I to the throne in the 1648 Second English Civil War. Following their defeat, Charles was executed in January 1649, leading to the establishment of the Commonwealth of England. For various reasons, the Scots objected to the execution, and the Treaty of Breda led to the Anglo-Scottish war (1650–1652). This time, defeat meant Scotland was incorporated into the Commonwealth. Although Scotland regained its independence after the 1660 Stuart Restoration, his experience of the alliance meant Charles II remained hostile to Presbyterianism throughout his reign, and restored bishops to the Church of Scotland in 1662. Background Victory in the 1639 and 1640 Bishops' Wars confirmed Covenanter control of Scotland, and established a Presbyterian-structured Church of Scotland, or "kirk". Thereafter, their main political objective was to preserve this achievement, and one way of doing so was to support their English allies in creating a closely-aligned Church of England. This required the Royalists to be defeated in the First English Civil War, and led to the 1643 Solemn League and Covenant. Under its terms, the Parliament of England agreed to "preserve" a Presbyterian kirk and "reform" the Church of England in accordance with "best practice", in return for Scottish military support. However, the pact had limited support in England, particularly from religious Independents like Oliver Cromwell, who opposed any state religion, especially one so highly regulated as the kirk. Disproportionately well-represented in the New Model Army, by 1646 the Scots and their English allies viewed them as more dangerous than their Royalist opponents. In May 1646, Charles I tried to take advantage of these divisions by surrendering to the Scots at Newark-on-Trent, hoping they would give him better terms than Parliament. His refusal to convert to Presbyterianism led to a stalemate between Charles and the Scots, who in 1647 handed him over to Parliament in exchange for £400,000. However, they were excluded from negotiations by the victorious English Parliament and by 1647, they despaired of achieving their political goals – the establishment