An acousto-optic modulator (AOM), also called a Bragg cell or an acousto-optic deflector (AOD), uses the acousto-optic effect to diffract and shift the frequency of light using sound waves (usually at radio-frequency). They are used in lasers for Q-switching, telecommunications for signal modulation, and in spectroscopy for frequency control. A piezoelectric transducer is attached to a material such as glass. An oscillating electric signal drives the transducer to vibrate, which creates sound waves in the material. These can be thought of as moving periodic planes of expansion and compression that change the index of refraction. Incoming light scatters (see Brillouin scattering) off the resulting periodic index modulation and interference occurs similar to Bragg diffraction. The interaction can be thought of as a three-wave mixing process resulting in Sum-frequency generation or Difference-frequency generation between phonons and photons. Principles of operation A typical AOM operates under Bragg Condition, where the incident light comes at Bragg angle from the perpendicular of the sound wave's propagation. Diffraction When the incident light beam is at Bragg angle, a diffraction pattern emerges where an order of diffracted beam occurs at each angle θ that satisfies: Here, m = ..., −2, −1, 0, +1, +2, ... is the order of diffraction, is the wavelength of light in vacuum, is the refractive index of the crystal material (e.g. quartz), and is the wavelength of the sound. itself is the wavelength of the light in the material. Note that m = 0 order travels in the same direction as the incident beam, and exits at Bragg angle from the perpendicular of the sound wave's propagation. Diffraction from a sinusoidal modulation in a thin crystal mostly results in the m = −1, 0, +1 diffraction orders. Cascaded diffraction in medium thickness crystals leads to higher orders of diffraction. In thick crystals with weak modulation, only phasematched orders are diffracted; this is called Bragg diffraction. The angular deflection can range from 1 to 5000 beam widths (the number of resolvable spots). Consequently, the deflection is typically limited to tens of milliradians. The angular separation between adjacent orders is twice the Bragg angle, i.e. . Intensity The amount of light diffracted by the sound wave depends on the intensity of the sound. Hence, the intensity of the sound can be used to modulate the intensity of the light in the diffracted beam. Typically, the intensity that is diffracted into m = 0