book, she does not use these terms to differentiate behaviour. She describes calming signals as a way for dogs to calm themselves or other humans/dogs around them. These are some of the signals she identifies: By moving different parts of their bodies, whether facial expressions or postures, dogs can express a wide range of emotions and signals. Mouth shape Mouth relaxed and slightly open; tongue perhaps slightly visible or draped over the lower teeth – this is the sign of a content and relaxed dog. Mouth closed, no teeth or tongue visible. Usually associated with the dog looking in one direction, and the ears and head may lean slightly forward - shows attention, interest, or appraisal of a situation. Curling or pulling the lips to expose the teeth and perhaps the gums - a warning signal. The other party has time to back down, leave, or show a pacifying gesture. Mouth elongated as if pulled back, stretching out the mouth opening and showing the rear teeth - a submissive dog yielding to the dominant dog's threat. "Smiling:" a calming signal. Head position A dominant or threatening dog that looks directly at another individual - a threat. It is pointing its weapons (muzzle/teeth). A dominant dog turning its head away from a submissive dog - a calming action, indicating that it is not going to attack. A less dominant dog approaching a dominant dog with its head down, and only on occasion quickly pointing its muzzle towards the higher-status dog - shows no fight is intended. In an alternative interpretation that does not involve dominance and submission, turning the head away is recognized as a calming signal. Yawn Similarly to humans, dogs yawn in an attempt to awaken. Dogs will also yawn when under stress, or as a pacifying signal when being menaced by aggression signals from another dog. Yawning, accompanied by a head turned away from the aggressor, can defuse a potentially threatening situation. It is also recognized as a calming signal. Licking and sniffing Licking behavior has multiple causes and meanings and should not be simply interpreted as affection. Dogs that are familiar with each other may lick each other's faces in greeting, then sniff any moist membranes where odors are strongest (i.e. mouth, nose, anal region, or urogenital region.) Mating behaviors are characterized by licking in a more vigorous manner than used during greetings. Licking can communicate information