g/L for red dessert wine. European Union wine regulations limit VA to 1.08 g/L for white table wines and 1.20 g/L for red table wines. Heterofermenting species of Oenococcus and Lactobacillus have the potential to produce high levels of acetic acid through the metabolism of glucose, though with most strains of O. oeni, the amount is usually only 0.1 to 0.2 g/L.Krieger, S., Triolo, G., and Dulau, L. "Bacteria and Wine Quality" Lallemand. (2000) Accessed: 14 May 2013 Several species of Pediococcus can also produce acetic acid through other pathways. Wines starting out with a high pH levels (above 3.5) stand the greatest risk of excessive acetic acid production due to the more favorable conditions for Lactobacillus and Pediococcus species.Wibowo, D., Eschenbruch, R., Davis, C.R., Fleet, G.H., and Lee, T.H. "Occurrence and Growth of Lactic Acid Bacteria in Wine" American Journal for Enology and Viticulture. Vol. 36 No. 4 302-313 (1985) L. Kunkeei, one of the so-called "ferocious Lactobacillus" species, has been known to produce 3 to 5 g/L of acetic acid in wines—levels which can easily lead to stuck fermentations. "Ferocious" Lactobacillus In the late 20th century, among American winemakers, seemingly healthy fermentation were reported becoming rapidly inundated with high levels of acetic acid that overcame wine yeasts and led to stuck fermentations. While a novel species of Acetobacter or wine spoilage yeast was initially thought to be the culprit, it was eventually discovered to be several species of Lactobacillus, L. kunkeei, L. nagelii, and L. hilgardii, collectively nicknamed "ferocious" Lactobacillus for their aggressive acetic acid production, how quickly they multiply, and their high tolerance to sulfur dioxides and other microbiological controls. Ferments of high-pH wines (greater than 3.5) that spent time cold soaking prior to yeast inoculations and received little to no sulfur dioxide during crushing seem to be at the most risk for "ferocious" Lactobacillus. While infection seems to be vineyard-specific, currently, none of any of the implicated lactobacilli has been reported as being found on the surface of freshly harvested wine grapes. Acrolein and mannitol taint The degradation of glycerol by some strains of LAB can yield the compound acrolein. Glycerol is a sweet-tasting polyol present in all wines, but at higher levels in wines that have been infected with Botrytis cinerea. An "active-aldehyde", acrolein can interact with some phenolic compounds in wine to create highly bitter-tasting wines, described as amertume by Pasteur. While at least