problems with the prototype theory. In their 1999 paper, they raise several issues. One of which is that prototype theory does not intrinsically guarantee graded categorization. When subjects were asked to rank how well certain members exemplify the category, they rated some members above others. For example robins were seen as being "birdier" than ostriches, but when asked whether these categories are "all-or-nothing" or have fuzzier boundaries, the subjects stated that they were defined, "all-or-nothing" categories. Laurence and Margolis concluded that "prototype structure has no implication for whether subjects represent a category as being graded" (p. 33). Compound concepts Daniel Osherson and Edward Smith raised the issue of pet fish for which the prototype might be a guppy kept in a bowl in someone's house. The prototype for pet might be a dog or cat, and the prototype for fish might be trout or salmon. However, the features of these prototypes do not present in the prototype for pet fish, therefore this prototype must be generated from something other than its constituent parts. Antonio Lieto and Gian Luca Pozzato have proposed a typicality-based compositional logic (TCL) that is able to account for both complex human-like concept combinations (like the PET-FISH problem) and conceptual blending. Thus, their framework shows how concepts expressed as prototypes can account for the phenomenon of prototypical compositionality in concept combination. See also Composite photography Composite portrait Exemplar theory Family resemblance Folksonomy Frame semantics Platonic ideal Semantic feature-comparison model Similarity (philosophy) Intuitive statistics Footnotes References Berlin, B. & Kay, P. (1969): Basic Color Terms: Their Universality and Evolution, Berkeley. Coseriu, E., Willems, K and Leuschner, T, (2000) Structural Semantics and 'Cognitive' Semantics, in Logos and Language Dirven, R. & Taylor, J. R. (1988): "The conceptualisation of vertical Space in English: The Case of Tall", in: Rudzka-Ostyn, B.(ed): Topics in Cognitive Linguistics. Amsterdam. Galton, F. (1878). Composite portraits. Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, Vol.8, pp.132–142. doi=10.2307/2841021 Gatsgeb, H. Z., Dundas, E. M., Minshew, M. J., & Strauss, M. S. (2012). Category formation in autism: Can individuals with autism form categories and prototypes of dot patterns?. Journal of Autism and Development Disorders, 42(8), 1694-1704. Gatsgeb, H. Z., Wilkinson, D. A., Minshew, M. J., & Strauss, M. S. (2011). Can individuals with autism abstract prototypes of natural faces?. Journal of Autism and Development Disorders, 41(12), 1609-1618. doi: 10.1007/s10803-011-1190-4 Lakoff, G. (1987): Women, fire and dangerous