separate genera, by clarifying that unifoliolate-leaved Berberis s.s. is derived from within a paraphyletic group of shrubs bearing imparipinnate evergreen leaves, which the paper then divides into three genera: Mahonia, Alloberberis (formerly Mahonia section Horridae), and Moranothamnus (formerly Berberis claireae); it confirms that a broadly-circumscribed Berberis (that is, including Mahonia, Alloberberis, and Moranothamnus) is monophyletic. Ecology Berberis species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species, including the moths barberry carpet moth (Pareulype berberata), and mottled pug (Eupithecia exiguata). Berberis species can infect wheat with stem rust, a serious fungal disease of wheat and related grains. Berberis vulgaris (European barberry) and Berberis canadensis (American barberry) serve as alternate host species of the rust fungus responsible, the fungus (Puccinia graminis). For this reason, cultivation of B. vulgaris is prohibited in many areas, and imports to the United States are forbidden. The North American B. canadensis, native to Appalachia and the Midwest United States, was nearly eradicated for this reason, and is now rarely seen extant, with the most remaining occurrences in the Virginia mountains. Some Berberis species have become invasive when planted outside of their native ranges, including B. glaucocarpa and B. darwinii in New Zealand (where it is now banned from sale and propagation), and B. vulgaris and green-leaved B. thunbergii in much of the eastern United States. Japanese barberry is considered an invasive plant in 32 US states. It is deer-resistant because of its taste and is favored as a shelter for ticks capable of transmitting lyme disease. Cultivation Several species of Berberis are popular garden shrubs, grown for such features as ornamental leaves, yellow flowers, or red or blue-black berries. Numerous cultivars and hybrids have been selected for garden use. Low-growing Berberis plants are also commonly planted as pedestrian barriers. Taller-growing species are valued for crime prevention; being dense and viciously spiny, they are effective barriers to burglars. Thus they are often planted below vulnerable windows, and used as hedges. Many species are resistant to predation by deer. Species in cultivation include: B. darwinii B. dictyophylla B. julianae B. thunbergii B. verruculosa The following hybrid selections have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit: B. 'Georgei' B. × lologensis 'Apricot Queen' B. × media 'Red Jewel' B. × stenophylla 'Corallina Compacta' B. × stenophylla (golden barberry) Culinary uses Berberis vulgaris grows in the wild in much of Europe and West Asia. It