the Confederacy and the Cherokee formed the majority of the Indian cavalry. Lewis Downing was named chaplain of companies F and S of the 1st Cherokee Mounted Rifles, which was formed by Chief Ross for the Confederate Army on October 4, 1861. Col. John Drew was the commanding officer. The members of this regiment were mostly full bloods and were largely not slave owners, although Drew was a slave owner. The regiment fought in the Confederate service at Pea Ridge, Arkansas, on March 7–8, 1862. With the advance of the Union forces into the Territory in July 1862, and the departure of Chief Ross for Philadelphia under growing tribal tensions, the cavalry's members began to waver in their allegiance to the South. With few exceptions, among them Col. John Drew, the Cherokee began to abandon Confederate service. On July 11, 1862, at Flat Rock Creek, most joined the 3rd Regiment of the Indian Home Guards for service in the Union Army. This contingent was composed of three regiments consisting of 1,480 men, of which Lewis Downing was named Lieut. Colonel and the Rev. John B. Jones was designated its chaplain, in the brigade of Col. William A. Phillips. At the time, the majority of the Cherokee favored the Confederacy. They and those who were pro-Union formed dual governments in the Cherokee Nation, each striving to control its political affairs. The pro-Union forces, who recognized John Ross as chief, held meetings at Cowskin Prairie. In July 1862, they renounced allegiance to the Confederacy. Tom Pegg took over as acting chief, and their National Council in early 1863 reflected the Emancipation Proclamation of President Abraham Lincoln. On February 21, 1863, laws of were enacted and future slavery abolished. Lewis Downing assisted in leadership, serving as the third (in succession) acting principal chief of the Union Cherokee in John Ross' absence in Washington, D.C. The dual governments continued until after the conclusion of the war. The pro-Confederate Cherokee were led by Stand Watie, who served as a brigadier general in the Confederate Army. Post war Lewis Downing, as president of the pro-Union tribal council, went to Washington in 1863 to alert the government to the divided situation of the Cherokee. After the war, a preliminary intertribal peace conference with the United States commissioners was held at Fort Smith on September 8, 1865. It was at this meeting that Downing protested against the refusal