his own sons, even though they were around the same age as he. The experienced generals were largely offended at this development, and they did not dare to openly defy him but did not have sense of loyalty to him. In 364, Fu Jiān, the emperor of Former Qin, conferred on Zhang Tianxi the same Jin-conferred titles that he had claimed, and Zhang Tianxi did not refuse, implicitly submitting as a vassal to Former Qin. Late in 366, however, he sent messengers to the borders with Former Qin, declaring an end to the states' relations. Later that year, Li Yan (), a warlord who had occupied Longxi Commandery (隴西, roughly modern Dingxi, Gansu) and become a Former Qin vassal but who had also maintained contact with Former Liang, formally declared independence and cut off relations with Former Qin and Former Liang, occupying the commanderies around him. In early 367, Zhang Tianxi personally attacked Li and took a number of cities from him. Li became fearful and apologized to Former Qin, seeking assistance. The Former Qin prime minister Wang Meng led a force to try to relieve Li's capital Fuhan (枹罕, in modern Linxia Hui Autonomous Prefecture, Gansu), and Wang and Zhang's forces came to a stalemate at Fuhan. Wang proposed a compromise—that Zhang would be allowed to capture Li's people and bring them back to his domain, while Wang would be allowed to carry Li east. Zhang Tianxi accepted, and a major confrontation with Former Qin was averted. In 371, after having destroyed Former Yan in 370, Fu Jiān sent messengers Liang Shu () and Yan Fu () to Former Liang, along with the previously captured Former Liang general Yin Ju () and a letter from Wang Meng, in which Wang tried to intimidate Zhang Tianxi into submission. Impressed with Former Qin's show of force, Zhang Tianxi became fearful and apologized, again submitting himself as a Former Qin vassal. Later that year, however, fearful that Former Qin had based large number of troops at his borders, he built an altar west of the capital Guzang (姑臧, in modern Wuwei, Gansu) and had his subordinates pledge an oath both to himself and to Jin, and then tried to petition the paramount Jin general Huan Wen to jointly attack Former Qin with him. (Huan's reaction is unknown, but no campaign was actually carried out.) Under Former Qin threat, however, Zhang Tianxi became