beyond a reasonable doubt that the inadmissible evidence did not contribute to the verdict. Harmless error is not a standard of review, and is an analysis for whether the error might have affected the jury's decision. Where a defendant fails to object to the inadmissible evidence at the time of trial or fails to specify that she or he is objecting on Confrontation Clause grounds, the reviewing court will sometimes only review for more substantial errors such as "plain error" or an error that results in a manifest injustice . Federal Circuit Courts of Appeal review unobjected to Confrontation Clause errors for plain error . State courts vary widely in their requirements for reviewing Confrontation Clause errors, but many review for either plain error, manifest injustice, or another similar standard. In many instances, courts reverse on Confrontation Clause grounds without analyzing whether an error is harmless. The most common reason for omitting such an analysis is the government's failure to raise harmlessness as an issue. Generally, defendants do not raise harmlessness unless the government does so. Interaction with other laws The states are free to interpret similar clauses in state constitutions more strictly than the Supreme Court's interpretation of the federal Confrontation Clause. The Fourteenth Amendment makes the right to confrontation applicable to the states and not just the federal government. Because many jurisdictions, including the federal courts and a number of states, practice constitutional abstention many cases that include Confrontation Clause violations are decided on other grounds. Constitutional abstention is a judicial preference to resolve dispositive non-constitutional issues first, and only turning to constitutional issues if they are necessary to resolve the case. In Confrontation Clause cases, constitutional abstention most typically occurs where the court resolves a hearsay issue based on the relevant evidence code before turning to the Confrontation Clause analysis. Thus, a preference for interpreting other closely related laws first often leaves Confrontation Clause issues unaddressed. Other sources of a right to confront witnesses The Due Process Clauses of the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments also require confrontation as an element of due process. State statutes and constitutions are another source of the right to confront witnesses. See also Cross-examination Maryland v. Craig (testimony by closed-circuit television) References Clauses of the United States Constitution United States constitutional criminal procedure United States evidence law