primary schools climbed from 76 to 87%. Most educational expenditures went for operating budgets, especially personnel costs, leaving little for capital programs and expansion. Spending remained skewed in favor of the urban areas. Approximately 60% of Bolivia's 59,000 teachers were employed in urban schools. The economic crisis that beset the country in the early to mid-1980s had a severe impact on educational spending. Analysts estimated that real education expenditures in 1985 were less than 40% of the total recorded in 1980. Over the same period, the percentage of the gross domestic product devoted to education dropped from 3% to less than 2%. Although the education system recorded some progress in enrollments in the 1970s and 1980s, serious problems remained as of the late 1980s. The number of secondary school students grew twice as fast as the population of that age-group; the university student population grew more than four times faster than the total population of 18- to 24-year-olds. Still, secondary education remained beyond the grasp of most Bolivians; only 35% of the eligible age-group attended secondary school. Significant disparities also existed between male and female enrollment rates. Efforts to increase female attendance ran up against the harsh economic realities faced by poorer families who relied on their daughters' help with chores and childcare. As of the late 1980s, dropout rates also remained extremely high. Only one-third of first graders completed the fifth grade, 20% started secondary school, 5% began their postsecondary studies, and just 1% received a university degree. Dropout rates were higher among girls and rural children. Only about 40% of rural youngsters continued their education beyond the third grade. Finally Spanish was the language of instruction at every level as of the late 1980s. Critics blamed the absence of bilingual education (or intercultural bilingual education, respectively) for the high dropout rates among rural schoolchildren. References Further reading Lopez, L.E. and Murillo,O. (2006) La reforma educativa boliviana: lecciones aprendidas y sostenibilidad de las transformaciones The World Bank (2006) Basic Education in Bolivia Challenges for 2006–2010 Society of Bolivia