Berlin. In Austria-Hungary, Romani people were often targeted with arbitrary deprivation of citizenship. The disintegration of the Austro-Hungarian, Russian, and Ottoman Empires after World War I and their replacement by nation-states led to the "unmixing of peoples", (a process of ethnic and national "dissimilation") involving mass expulsions, de facto denaturalization, and relegation of ethnic minorities to second-class citizenship. Following the Armenian genocide, Turkey continued the policy of ethnic homogenization in Anatolia by denaturalizing Armenians, Assyrians or Syriacs, Greeks, and Jews who were abroad, and sometimes those who remained in the country. All of the people ethnically cleansed during the Greek–Turkish population exchange lost their original nationality. Turkish denaturalization of ethnic minorities was formalized by a series of decrees in the 1920s and 1930s, and continued through World War II. By 1943, 93 percent of those denaturalized were Turkish Jews, putting them at high risk of dying during the Holocaust. The Second Czechoslovak Republic denaturalized Jews who fled or were expelled from the Sudetenland, which had been annexed to Germany in 1938. The same year, Poland, which was trying to reduce its Jewish population, passed a law that denaturalized Polish Jews living abroad. The initially envisioned the denaturalization of a few political dissidents living outside the country. All German Jews lost their citizenship rights in 1935 and those who emigrated were denaturalized en masse, often to make it easier to confiscate their property. Most contemporaries agreed that Nazi Germany's use of denaturalization did not contravene international law. In 1941, all Jewish emigres and German Jews who were deported to Nazi ghettos or concentration camps were also denaturalized. In German-occupied Europe, Jews who retained citizenship in a neutral or Axis country were often protected from deportation and death while those who were stateless were at increased risk. Vichy France denaturalized 15,000 people, including 6,000 Jews, in order to "purify the national community"; 1,000 of these denaturalized Jews were murdered. The Vichy denaturalization law was abrogated after the end of the war. Jews in Hungary, Romania, French Algeria, and Italy also were stripped of their citizenship. At least eight million Germans were expelled and denaturalized after World War II. During the foundation of the State of Israel in 1948, hundreds of thousands of Palestinians were effectively denaturalized and became refugees. In 1949, Sri Lanka denaturalized the Indian Tamils of Sri Lanka and tried to deport them to India. In apartheid South Africa, millions