for other dialects of Ojibwe in Ontario and the United States, and widely employed in reference materials and text collections. Sometimes referred to as the Double Vowel system because it uses doubled vowel symbols to represent Ottawa long vowels that are paired with corresponding short vowels, it is an adaptation attributed to Charles Fiero of the linguistically oriented system found in publications such as Leonard Bloomfield's Eastern Ojibwa. Letters of the English alphabet substitute for specialized phonetic symbols, in conjunction with orthographic conventions unique to Ottawa. The system embodies two basic principles: (1) alphabetic letters from the English alphabet are used to write Ottawa, but with Ottawa sound values; (2) the system is phonemic in nature, in that each letter or letter combination indicates its basic sound value, and does not reflect all the phonetic detail that occurs. Accurate pronunciation cannot be learned without consulting a fluent speaker. The Ottawa variant of this system uses the following consonant letters or digraphs: b, ch, d, f, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, p, r, s, sh, t, w, y, z, zh The letters f, l, and r are found in loan words, such as 'give me a call' and 'in the refrigerator'. Loan words that have recently been borrowed from English are typically written in standard English orthography. The letter h is used for the glottal stop , which is represented in the broader Ojibwe version with the apostrophe. In Ottawa the apostrophe is reserved for a separate function noted below. In a few primarily expressive words, orthographic h has the phonetic value : 'OK'. Vowels are represented as follows:Long ii, oo, aa, e; Short i, o, a By convention the three long vowels that correspond to a short vowel are written double, while the single long vowel written as orthographic e that does not have a corresponding short vowel is not written doubled. The apostrophe ’ is used to distinguish primary (underlying) consonant clusters from secondary clusters that arise when the rule of syncope deletes a vowel between two consonants. For example, orthographic ng must be distinguished from n'g. The former has the phonetic value (arising from place of articulation assimilation of to the following velar consonant , which is then deleted in word-final position as in 'at the island'), while the latter has the phonetic value as in 'black squirrel'. History In the general model of linguistic change,