'black' in Minnanyu, corresponding to in Guoyu). Some words may not be represented by well known characters and are instead written with English letters, such as Q, from the Minnanyu word khiū, referring to a soft, chewy texture in foods. Some compound words or phrases may combine characters representing Minnanyu and Guoyu words. From Japanese Japanese in the early 20th century had a significant influence on modern Chinese vocabulary. The Japanese language saw the proliferation of neologisms to describe concepts and terms learned through contact with the West in the Meiji and Taishō eras. Thus, the creation of words like minshu 'democracy', kakumei 'revolution' and saimin 'hypnotize', which were then borrowed into Chinese and pronounced as Chinese words. Both Guoyu and Putonghua retain these words today.Guoyu was also further influenced by Japanese. As a result of Imperial Japan's 50-year rule over Taiwan until 1945, Minnanyu (and Hakka) borrowed extensively from Japanese, and Guoyu in turn borrowed some of these words from Minnanyu, such that Japanese influence can be said to have come via Minnanyu. For example, the Minnanyu word (Peh-oe-ji: kòngku; ) 'to lose completely', which has been borrowed into Guoyu, originates from Japanese sukonku (, 'skunk'), with the same meaning. Other examples of Guoyu loans from Japanese via Minnanyu include yùnjiàng, 'driver, chaffeur', from unchan and ōubāsāng, 'elderly woman', from おばさん obasan. In general, Japanese loanwords are more widespread in Guoyu than Putonghua. Guoyu continues to borrow words from Japanese in the 21st century, especially among youth, for whom Japanese culture is particularly attractive. Grammar The grammar of Guoyu is largely identical to Putonghua. As is the case with lexicon and phonology described above, salient grammatical differences from Putonghua often stem from the influence of Minnanyu. Perfective 有 yǒu To mark the perfect verbal aspect, Guoyu employs (yǒu) where (le) would be used in the strictly standard form of the language. For instance, a Guoyu speaker may ask "" ("Have you seen a doctor?") whereas a Putonghua speaker would prefer "". This is due to the influence of Minnanyu grammar, which uses (ū) in a similar fashion. In both Guoyu and Putonghua, yǒuméiyǒu can precede a verb phrase to mark a perfective question, as in (1), and in Guoyu, this can be split (2): (1) ("Did you apply for a visa?") (2) (Guoyu only) Auxiliary verbs Another example of the influence of Minnanyu grammar on Guoyu is the use