two sounds. z-umlaut: is raised to before . Early PGmc "me, dative" > late PGmc > Old High German mir, Old Saxon mi, Old Norse mér (with general lowering and lengthening of i before r). This change was only sporadic at best because there were barely any words in which it could have occurred at all, since remained only in stressed syllables. The umlauting effect of remained, however, and in Old West Norse it was extended to other vowels as well. Hence OEN glaʀ, hrauʀ, OWN gler, hreyrr. Pre-nasal raising: > before nasal + consonant. Pre-PGmc * > PGmc > > OE bindan > ModE bind (Latin ). This was later extended in Pre-Old English times to vowels before all nasals; hence Old English niman "take" but Old High German neman. Loss of before , with nasalization and compensatory lengthening of the preceding vowel. The nasalization was eventually lost, but remained through the Ingvaeonic period. Hence Pre-PGmc * > PGmc > OE þencan > ModE think, but PrePG * > PGmc > > OE > ModE thought. This change followed the raising of before a nasal: PGmc > > > Gothic . Final-syllable short vowels were generally deleted in words of three syllables or more. PGmc > Goth "(he) carries" (see above), and also PGmc , > (dative and instrumental plural ending of nouns, 1st person plural ending of verbs, as on the Stentoften Runestone). Northwest Germanic period This was the period that existed after the East Germanic languages had split off. Changes during this time were shared with the North Germanic dialects, i.e. Proto-Norse. Many of the changes that occurred were areal, and took time to propagate throughout a dialect continuum that was already diversifying. Thus, the ordering of the changes is sometimes ambiguous, and can differ between dialects. Allophonic i-mutation/Germanic umlaut: Short back vowels were fronted when followed in the next syllable by or , by i-mutation: > , > , > In this initial stage, the mutated vowels were still allophonically conditioned, and were not yet distinct as phonemes. Only later, when the and were modified or lost, were the new sounds phonemicized. i-mutation affected all the Germanic languages except for Gothic, although with a great deal of variation. It appears to have occurred earliest, and to be most pronounced, in the Schleswig-Holstein area (the home of the Anglo-Saxons), and from there to have spread north and