Angelica Balabanoff (or Balabanov, Balabanova; – Anzhelika Balabanova; 4 August 1878 – 25 November 1965) was a Russian-Italian communist and social democratic activist of Jewish origin. She served as secretary of the Comintern from 1919 to 1920, and later became a political party leader in Italy. Biography Balabanoff was born into a wealthy family in Chernihiv, Russian Empire, where she rebelled against her mother's strictness. While attending the Université Nouvelle de Bruxelles in Brussels, Belgium, she was exposed to political radicalism. After graduating with degrees in philosophy and literature, she settled in Rome and began to organize immigrant workers in the textile industry, joining the Italian Socialist Party (Partito Socialista Italiano; PSI) in 1900. She became closely associated with Antonio Labriola, Giacinto Menotti Serrati, Benito Mussolini, and the party's founder, Filippo Turati. She moved further to the left during the First World War, becoming active in the Zimmerwald Movement. During the war, she spent some time in exile in neutral Sweden, where she was affiliated with the Left Socialist movement and became a close friend of Swedish Communist leaders Ture Nerman, Fredrik Ström, Zeth Höglund and Kata Dalström. When the Russian Revolution broke out in 1917, Balabanoff travelled to Russia and joined the Bolsheviks. According to Emma Goldman, she became disillusioned with the style of socialism in Russia and "had become rooted in the soil of Italy." Balabanoff told Goldman of her discomfort about temporarily living in the Narishkin Palace. She became secretary of the Communist Third International in 1919 and worked alongside Goldman, Vladimir Lenin and Grigory Zinoviev, as well as many others. This led her to become an open critic of Bolshevism, and she left Russia in 1922, travelling back to Italy to reunite with her friend and comrade Giacinto Menotti Serrati. After Serrati abandoned the PSI for the Communist Party of Italy (Partito Comunista d'Italia; PCdI) in 1924, she assumed control of his Maximalist (Massimalisti) group until the Fascist authorities forced her into exile in Switzerland, where she edited Avanti! and became the secretary of the Paris Bureau. She had first encountered Mussolini, who at the time was still a socialist, while addressing a meeting in Lausanne; her impression of him was not flattering. "I had never seen a more wretched human being", she later wrote, "... he seemed more concerned with his inner turmoil than what I was saying." In 1930 the PSI split over the