also traces the dualistic nature of the mind/body connection by examining the early philosophies of Aristotle, Hegel and Descartes, revealing how such distinguishing binaries such as spirit/matter and male activity/female passivity have worked to solidify gender characteristics and categorization. Bordo proceeds to point out that while men have historically been associated with the intellect and the mind or spirit, women have long been associated with the body, the subordinated, negatively imbued term in the mind/body dichotomy. Materialism Bordo argues that "knowledge is 'embodied,' produced from a 'standpoint,' by a body that is located as a material entity among other material entities". She is therefore situated within a materialist framework, for, as Susan Hekman points out, "Bordo's emphasis on the materiality of the body, what most of us would call the 'real' body, is a function of her central theoretical conviction". Situating Bordo within a feminist and materialist theoretical context, her work is often compared and contrasted with Judith Butler's writing, writing that deals with gender formation and the body. Hekman provides analyses of Bordo's situatedness within materialist discourse and suggests both differences and similarities in the theoretical concerns of Bordo and Butler. While Bordo does at times imply that the body is a text to be inscribed upon and interpreted, she also emphasizes the materiality and locatedness of bodies within Western culture, whereas Butler's work on the body reflects a greater affiliation with postmodern thought in "treat[ing] the body as pure text". Bordo questions such a purely textual body for "If the body is treated as pure text, subversive, destabilizing elements can be emphasized and freedom and self-determination celebrated; but one is left wondering, is there a body in this text?". For Bordo, it is the "cultural definitions of the body and its materiality as they are given to us" that must be resisted, and therefore "real" bodies "must be the focus of feminist analysis and, significantly, feminist resistance". Feminism Bordo's critique of gendered, and particularly feminine, bodies stems from both feminist and gender studies methodologies. She critiques, re-evaluates, and reconfigures old and new feminist methodology, not excluding certain earlier feminist concerns that focused on the dichotomies of oppressor/oppressed, victimizer/victim, but re-evaluating their effectiveness and application to contemporary feminine concerns. As Bordo points out, feminism of the late 1960s and 1970s viewed "the female body [as] a socially shaped and historically 'colonized' territory". Such a view, she claims, classifies women