he had been arrested. During the perp walk for his transfer to the county jail, he was fatally shot on live television by Jack Ruby, a civilian who was a frequent visitor to the police station. As a result of that, security would be tightened on future perp walks to prevent similar killings. 1960s–1980s: The televised perp walk In New York, the rise of television news later in that decade led to other changes. Reporters came with camera crews, which could no longer be accommodated inside precinct houses. In 1969 a group of journalists, judges and police officers drew up guidelines for perp walks after a conference. "Law enforcement and court personnel should not prevent the photographing of defendants when they are in public places outside the courtroom", they read. "They should neither encourage nor discourage pictures or televising, but they should not pose the accused." A few years later they were formally adopted by the NYPD. Later that decade, in 1977, an amused-looking David Berkowitz, the "Son of Sam" serial killer, was paraded in front of a large group of media after his arrest, a spectacle that calmed a city his murders had left on edge. Three years later, following Mark David Chapman's arrest after he killed John Lennon, police took precautions against the sort of revenge killing that had happened to Oswald. 1980s–1990s: White-collar perp walks In the 1980s, white-collar criminals began to be perp-walked as well, as federal prosecutors saw the public-relations value of the practice. During his tenure as United States Attorney for the Southern District of New York, Rudolph Giuliani often had Wall Street investment bankers perp-walked. Defendants such as Richard Wigton, a Kidder Peabody trader accused of insider trading, were arrested at their place of business and walked off a trading floor in handcuffs with a uniformed police escort, as Charlie Sheen's character Bud Fox is in Oliver Stone's 1987 film Wall Street. "Rudy Giuliani made an art form out of [the perp walk]", says Loyola Law School professor Laurie Levenson. Former Manhattan district attorney Robert Morgenthau agrees, calling Giuliani "the master of the perp walk". At the same time, the term "perp walk" became common usage for the practice. New York Times language columnist William Safire found 1986 to be its earliest use in the media. His colleague John Tierney claims the term was in use among photographers and the police as early