dispositions are determined by the size and constitution of the brain. The brain is a portion of our organized system, and as such, is subject to the organic laws, by one of which its qualities are transmitted by hereditary descent." Combe extends this argument to nations of people: "The differences of national character are equally conspicuous as those of national brains, and it is surprising how permanently both endure" citing the perceived contemporary differences in the "Hindoo, Chinese, New Hollander, Negro, and Charib" skulls. He then investigates the contemporary notions of trait inheritance in 'lower animals' like sheep and dogs and claims that the inheritance patterns observed in animals, children acquiring habits from the parent, resembles that of humans. Combe presents a hierarchy of human minds by human groups: "Europeans...possess a favourable development of the moral and intellectual organs," and Hindoos, and Native American "brains are inferior." He goes on to say that the child with two European parents has superior mental qualities to that of a child with one European parent and one non-European parent, and that the child with one European parent has superior mental qualities to the child with no European parents On the basis that intellectual and moral habits are inherited by offspring from parents, it is even more important to preserve and develop these faculties so that they may be ideal in offspring. Combe also proposes that the heredity of the capacities is limited to good and not evil, and despite the stratification of the races, each has the potential for improvement through generations up to an ideal limit of capacity. In Section three "Calamities Arising from Infringement of the Moral Law," and section four "Moral Advantages of Punishment," Combe argues that the development of human moral and intellectual capacities results in individual, religious, moral, and societal improvement. Chapter IV: On the Combined Operation of the Natural Laws In this chapter, Combe presents historical examples of the interactions of the natural laws, and how obedience to one does not necessarily imply obedience to the rest, and how punishment and reward for those laws disobeyed and obeyed, respectively, occurs in the lives of men. Conclusion Combe concludes by asserting that Phrenology provides an unprecedented science of the Mind. With Phrenology, one can understand the constitution of man, and this is essential for individual and societal happiness and improvement. By understanding the mind and relationship of the