de facto courts. French courts are often specialized, with separate public law and private law courts, and subject matter specific courts like general civil and criminal courts, employment, commercial and agricultural lease courts. Judges are typically professional civil servants, mostly recruited through exams and trained at the École Nationale de la Magistrature. There are also non-professional judges, typically in less serious civil or administrative cases. In public law cases, a public body, such as the national government, local authorities, public agencies, and public services like universities to railways, are always a party in dispute. Public bodies are subject to different rules on their power, contract, employment and liabilities. Instead of rules in the Civil Code and Commercial Code, administrative law statutes and principles developed by the Council of State are applied. Private law disputes between individuals or private entities are heard in civil courts. The Tribunal des conflits resolves questions of appropriate court jurisdiction. Administrative law courts The Council of State (Conseil d’État) is the highest court in administrative law and also the legal advisor of the executive branch. It originated from the King’s Privy Council, which adjudicated disputes with the state, which is exempt from other courts because of sovereign immunity. The Council of State hears appeals on questions of law from lower courts and gives advisory opinions on the law on reference from lower courts. It also decides at first instance the validity of legislative or administrative decisions of the President, the Prime Minister, and certain senior civil servants. There are 42 lower administrative courts and 8 administrative courts of appeal, which hears appeals on fact and law. Administrative courts can enforce their decisions by ordonnance to the public body. In addition to generalist administrative courts, there are special administrative courts on asylum, social welfare payments, the disciplinary organs of professional bodies, and courts that audit public bodies and local governments. Administrative court judges are selected separately from other judges. Civil and criminal courts The Court of Cassation (Cour de Cassation) is the highest court and the only national court on civil and criminal matters. It has six chambers, five civil chambers: (i) on contract, (ii) on delict, (iii) on family matters, (iv) on commercial matters, (v) on social matters: labour and social security law; and (vi) on criminal law. The court has 85 conseillers, 39 junior conseillers réferendaires, and 18 trainee auditeurs. It typically hears cases in