depicted as a dwarf or as a normal human as in the Sheshashayi Vishnu panel of the Gupta Deogarh temple. She is depicted holding the gada. The motif of Kaumodaki holding the gada is mostly found in Uttar Pradesh and Bengal art. In another variation, Kaumodaki stands besides Vishnu with folded hands (in anjali mudra posture) with the gada depicted on the head as part of the crown or the weapon mark on her forehead, as in Chola era bronzes of the gada. Development and Symbolism The mace or club is one of the oldest types of weapons. The popularity of the weapons with Vishnu worshippers may have led to its depiction with the deity. The gada – a symbol of strength – was a common weapon for hand-to-hand combat and was regarded as the strongest of weapons. Vishnu's attributes originate from his avatars, Rama and Krishna, the heroes of the ancient Hindu epics Ramayana and Mahabharata (existing in the 5th to 4th century BCE) respectively. Both the epics narrate various characters – gods, men and demons alike – using the gada. In the philosophical meaning expounded by the Vishnu-worshipping Vaishnava sect, Kaumodaki symbolizes "the intellect, the power of knowledge and the power of time". While explaining the symbolism of four attributes in Vishnu's hands, the Gopala Tapani Upanishad says that the gada – which represents primordial knowledge – is held in the lower left hand, which denotes "individual existence". The Vishnu Purana calls the gada the power of knowledge. Kaumodaki is said to "intoxicate" the mind. According to the Vishnudharmottara Purana, Kaumodaki represents Vishnu's wife Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth and beauty. The Krishna Upanishad equates the gada to the goddess Kali, "the power of time". The text further says that like the invincible Time, the mace is the destroyer of all opponents. Another interpretation suggests that the Kaumodaki symbolizes the life-force (prana) from which all "physical and mental powers" arise. Vishnu's gada also stands for discipline, complemented by his lotus, that denotes praise. While the lotus and shankha in his hands are water symbols representing life and love, the gada and the chakra are fire symbols denoting pain and destruction and command adherence to the rules of society and nature. The Varaha Purana says the gada is to teach a lesson to irreligious rulers. Vishnu is also said to clear illusion by his gada. Literature In the Mahabharata,