ones (the general theory of relativity works in non-inertial reference frames as well). Evaluating a model A model is evaluated first and foremost by its consistency to empirical data; any model inconsistent with reproducible observations must be modified or rejected. One way to modify the model is by restricting the domain over which it is credited with having high validity. A case in point is Newtonian physics, which is highly useful except for the very small, the very fast, and the very massive phenomena of the universe. However, a fit to empirical data alone is not sufficient for a model to be accepted as valid. Factors important in evaluating a model include: Ability to explain past observations Ability to predict future observations Cost of use, especially in combination with other models Refutability, enabling estimation of the degree of confidence in the model Simplicity, or even aesthetic appeal People may attempt to quantify the evaluation of a model using a utility function. Visualization Visualization is any technique for creating images, diagrams, or animations to communicate a message. Visualization through visual imagery has been an effective way to communicate both abstract and concrete ideas since the dawn of man. Examples from history include cave paintings, Egyptian hieroglyphs, Greek geometry, and Leonardo da Vinci's revolutionary methods of technical drawing for engineering and scientific purposes. Space mapping Space mapping refers to a methodology that employs a "quasi-global" modelling formulation to link companion "coarse" (ideal or low-fidelity) with "fine" (practical or high-fidelity) models of different complexities. In engineering optimization, space mapping aligns (maps) a very fast coarse model with its related expensive-to-compute fine model so as to avoid direct expensive optimization of the fine model. The alignment process iteratively refines a "mapped" coarse model (surrogate model). Types Analogical modelling Assembly modelling Catastrophe modelling Choice modelling Climate model Computational model Continuous modelling Data modelling Discrete modelling Document modelling Econometric model Economic model Ecosystem model Empirical modelling Enterprise modelling Futures studies Geologic modelling Goal modelling Homology modelling Hydrogeology Hydrography Hydrologic modelling Informative modelling Macroscale modelling Mathematical modelling Metabolic network modelling Microscale modelling Modelling biological systems Modelling in epidemiology Molecular modelling Multicomputational model Multiscale modelling NLP modelling Phenomenological modelling Predictive intake modelling Predictive modelling Scale modelling Simulation Software modelling Solid modelling Space mapping Statistical model Stochastic modelling (insurance) Surrogate model System architecture System dynamics Systems modelling System-level modelling and simulation Water quality modelling Applications Modelling and simulation One