bad vipāka, which is the effect of bad karma. The Bhagavata Purana enumerates the following 28 Narakas: Tamisra, Andhatamisra, Raurava, Maharaurava, Kumbhipaka, Kalasutra, Asipatravana, Sukaramukha, Andhakupa, Krimibhojana, Samdamsa, Taptasurmi, Vajrakantaka-salmali, Vaitarani, Puyoda, Pranarodha, Visasana, Lalabhaksa, Sarameyadana, Avichi, Ayahpana, Ksharakardama, Raksogana-bhojana, Sulaprota, Dandasuka, Avata-nirodhana, Paryavartana, and Suchimukha. The Brahmanda Purana conceives them to be Bhūta (past), Bhavya (future), and Bhavat (present) The scholar Deborah Soifer describes the development of the concept of lokas as follows: The concept of a loka or lokas develops in the Vedic literature. Influenced by the special connotations that a word for space might have for a nomadic people, loka in the Veda did not simply mean place or world, but had a positive valuation: it was a place or position of religious or psychological interest with a special value of function of its own. Hence, inherent in the 'loka' concept in the earliest literature was a double aspect; that is, coexistent with spatiality was a religious or soteriological meaning, which could exist independent of a spatial notion, an 'immaterial' significance. The most common cosmological conception of lokas in the Veda was that of the trailokya or triple world: three worlds consisting of earth, atmosphere or sky, and heaven, making up the universe." Fourteen lokas In the Puranas and in the Atharvaveda, there are 14 worlds, seven higher ones (Vyahrtis) and seven lower ones (Pātālas), viz. bhu, bhuvas, svar, mahas, janas, tapas, and satya above and atala, vitala, sutala, rasātala, talātala, mahātala, pātāla and naraka at the bottom. The higher lokas (1-7) are described as the heavens, populated by higher gods, and full of truth. The lower lokas (8-14) constitute the different "hells". In each of these realms are different deities and beings 'living out their karmic trajectories". Those beings in the higher realms have attained a temporary spiritual liberation due to their positive merits for having strengthened their detachment to the mind, ego and sense objects. However, ultimate liberation (moksha) is regarded as the highest goal in human life, in which one achieves ultimate union with God. Moksha, in turn, requires total liberation/detachment from worldly objects and desires. Lokas: Satya-loka (Brahma-loka) Tapa-loka Jana-loka Mahar-loka Svar-loka (Svarga-loka) Bhuvar-loka Bhu-loka Atala-loka Vitala-loka Sutala-loka Talatala-loka Mahatala-loka Rasatala-loka Patala-loka Another lineup of the fourteen lokas is stated as follows: Bhur-loka Bhuvar-loka Suvar-loka Mahar-loka Janar-loka Tapar-loka Satya-loka Brahma-loka Pitri-loka Soma-loka Indra-loka Gandharva-loka Rakshasa-loka Yaksha-loka Gallery Buddhism Six lokas In the Tibetan