to contain chemicals which decrease female remating, and enhance the number of eggs laid by the female. The prespermatophoric ejaculate also likely contains nutritive compounds, which contribute to the health of future offspring and the female herself. While instances of remating are low in almond moths, it is most likely to occur in instances where the female received only seminal compounds and no spermatophore. The spermatophore contains two different kinds of sperm: eupyrene sperm, which contains genetic material, and apyrene sperm, which is sterile. The presence of apyrene sperm is thought to produce a larger refractory period in the female moth by filling her reproductive tract, and thus prolonging the time period before she can remate. Male moths living in a population with high larval density produce higher ratios of apyrene to eupyrene sperm, presumably due to the fact that high larval population density increases the threat of sperm competition. Interspecific mating The almond moth often takes part in courtship with other species, especially with the Indian mealmoth (Plodia interpunctella). Even so, successful mating between the species is highly unlikely since they are mechanically isolated from one another. The male sex pheromone serves as a key species recognition signal. This, in addition to other mechanical barriers to insemination, make copulation rare. Interaction with humans The almond moth is commonly regarded as a pest because it can be found in various kinds of dry food products including, but not limited to: dried fruits, wheat products, flours, nuts, and seeds. A variety of means by which to control the spread of almond moths have been explored. While pesticides and other chemical agents may reduce infestation, these products can present harmful consequences for the environment and for the humans who consume the foods on which the almond moth feeds. Thus, the exploration of natural enemies of the almond moth (including various kinds of predators and parasites) has been pursued as a means to control infestations. Synonyms Because of its wide distribution and accidental introductions, it has become known under a number of junior synonyms: Cadra defectella Walker, 1864 Cryptoblabes formosella Wileman & South, 1918 Ephestia cautella (Walker, 1863) Ephestia irakella Amsel, 1959 Ephestia passulella Barrett, 1875 Ephestia pelopis Turner, 1947 Ephestia rotundatella Turati, 1930 Nephopteryx desuetella Walker, 1866 Nephopterix passulella (Barret, 1875) Pempelia cautella Walker, 1863 References Phycitini Household pest insects Cosmopolitan moths Moths described in 1863 Insect pests of millets