is private, although government support to universities and laboratories aid industry greatly. In 1986 private industry provided 76 percent of the funding for research and development, which was especially strong in the late 1980s in electrical machinery (with a ratio of research costs to total sales of 5.5 percent in 1986), precision instruments (4.6 percent), chemicals (4.3 percent), and transportation equipment (3.2 percent). As for government research and development, the national commitment to greater defense spending in the 1980s translated into increased defense-related research and development. Meanwhile, government moved away from supporting large-scale industrial technology, such as shipbuilding and steel. Research emphases in the 1980s were in alternative energy, information processing, life sciences, and modern industrial materials and supplies. Current situation In 2016, the total spending on R&D in Japan was 165.7 billion USD by PPP, which represents around 3% of the country's GDP PPP. References Social Research Collaboration Tool for Researchers - Dolan, R. E. & Worden, R. L. (1992) Japan: A Country Study. Washington, D.C.: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress: For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Govt. Print. Off. [Pdf] Retrieved from the Library of Congress, https://www.loc.gov/item/91029874/. Science and technology in Japan