Wall Street Crash of 1929, 9,000 banks close, wiping out one third of the money supply in the United States. 1933 – Executive Order 6102 signed by U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt forbade ownership of gold coin, gold bullion, and gold certificates by US citizens beyond a certain amount, effectively ending the convertibility of US dollars into gold. 1971 – The Nixon Shock was a series of economic measures taken by U.S. President Richard Nixon which canceled the direct convertibility of the United States dollar to gold by foreign nations. This essentially ended the existing Bretton Woods system of international financial exchange. 1986 – The "Big Bang" (deregulation of London financial markets) served as a catalyst to reaffirm London's position as a global centre of world banking. 2007 – Start of the Late-2000s financial crisis that saw the credit crunch that led to the failure and bail-out of a large number of the world's biggest banks. 2008 – Washington Mutual collapses, the largest bank failure in history up to that point. See also Money creation Monetary reform History of money Banker (ancient) Branchless banking History of the cheque Early Canadian banking system History of banking in the United States Global financial system History of Virtual Cryptobanking with Bitcoin List of recessions Online banking Open banking References Footnotes Citations Further reading Andreades, Andreas Michael. History of the Bank of England (Routledge, 2013) Cameron, Rondo. Banking in the Early Stages of Industrialization: A Study in Comparative Economic History (1967) Cameron, Rondo et al. International Banking 1870–1914 (1992) Feis, Herbert. Europe the World's Banker, 1870–1914 (1930) online Ferguson, Niall. The Ascent of Money: A Financial History of the World (2008). Ferguson, Niall. The House of Rothschild: Volume 2: The World's Banker: 1849-1999 (2000) Grossman, Richard S. Unsettled Account: The Evolution of Banking in the Industrialized World Since 1800 (Princeton University Press; 2010) 384 pages. Considers how crises, bailouts, mergers, and regulations have shaped the history of banking in Western Europe, the United States, Canada, Japan, and Australia. Hammond, Bray, Banks and Politics in America, from the Revolution to the Civil War (Princeton University Press, 1957) Hudson, Peter James. "On the History and Historiography of Banking in the Caribbean." Small Axe 18.1 43 (2014): 22–37. Jaffe, Steven H., and Jessica Lautin. Capital of Capital: Money, Banking, and Power in New York City (Columbia University Press, 2014) Kindleberger, Charles P. – A Financial History of