major offences. Lüneburg achieved even greater independence and had both greater and lesser jurisdictions. Judiciary In the 13th and 14th centuries the regional magistracies (Gogerichte) were responsible for the administration of justice. Their magistrates (Gorichter) were usually freely elected by the community under their jurisdiction, but some were appointed by the duke or a lesser noble. Their powers of jurisdiction were transferred to the Ämter as the latter became established. Thereafter the Ämter were responsible for the initial handling of civil law matters for the majority of subjects in the principality. More serious crimes would be investigated by the Ämter and the sentence pronounced by the chancery court in Celle, once the case had been referred. Where towns had lesser or higher jurisdictions, the townsfolk would be dealt with in the civic courts. Cases for subjects that came under the jurisdiction of the 'closed aristocratic courts' in Wathlingen and Gartow were heard by the respective lords of the manor (Gutsherren). The chancery court handled all civil and criminal cases involving the nobility and the majority of senior officials. The chancery court also acted as a court of appeal as did, from 1536, the royal court in Celle that was permanently in session. There was no clear division of responsibility; the choice of court was left to the plaintiff. As a final resort there was the option of appealing to the imperial chamber court (Reichskammergericht) in Wetzlar. In the Principality of Lüneburg, in addition to the chancery court and the courts at Amt level there existed numerous aristocratic patrimonial courts (Patrimonialgerichte), whose responsibilities were confined to the jurisdiction of specific groups of people and areas. For example, there were so-called "internal, stake, fence, village, road and field courts" (Binnen-, Pfahl-, Zaun-, Dorf-, Straßen- und Feldgerichte.) For all civil and criminal legal disputes that involved the use of woodland, the "woodland courts" (Holzungsgerichte) were responsible, that met once or twice a year and whose boundaries were independent of the Ämtern. Since the 16th century these courts lost their influence and disputes about forested land were decided by other courts. From 1562 the highest, ecclesiastical court was the consistory (Konsistorium) in Celle, which was responsible for all marital matters, cases between churches and cases between the laity and the clergy. Landschaft of the Principality of Lüneburg In the 17th century the Lüneburg Landschaft emerged as an institution representing the estates (Landstände) of the