definition known today. Medical praxiology Medical, or clinical, praxiology is an old term introduced by Sadegh-Zadeh in 1977–1981 already to denote a wide-ranging inquiry into the foundations of clinical practice, particularly of clinical judgment and decision-making, with the aim of reducing diagnostic-therapeutic errors and of improving physician performance.Foundations of clinical praxiology. Part I: The relativity of medical diagnosis. Metamedicine, 1981;2:183–196. See the article here In the latter article referred to, he has defined the term explicitly as "analysis of clinical practice", "inquiry into clinical practice", and "theory of clinical practice", i.e., the philosophy, methodology, and logic of medical doing and acting. Central topics include everything related to concepts and theories that are basic to clinical practice, i.e., the concepts and theories of patient, suffering, health, illness, disease, diagnosis, etiology, prognosis, therapy, and prevention. This perspective, Sadegh-Zadeh claims, creates a fertile scientific field with a host of tasks ranging from conceptual analyses (like "what is disease?", "what is a diagnosis?", "what is differential diagnosis?", etc.) to logical analyses – such as "is clinical decision-making computable or does it require human intelligence and intuition?" – to epistemology, ethics, and metaphysics of clinical decision-making and so forth. Over the past decades, Sadegh-Zadeh's clinical praxiology has developed further with increasing sophistication. One example of his theories is the prototype resemblance theory of disease presenting a fuzzy-logical explication of the vague concept of disease: Medical epistemology Medical epistemology is the philosophy of medical knowledge or simply theory of medical knowledge. Sadegh-Zadeh conceived it as a task or branch of the philosophy of medicine already in 1982 deploring that "The contemporary philosophy of medicine movement is mainly concerned with medical-ethical problems while unduly neglecting medical-epistemological ones". The category medical knowledge consists of statements of spatio-temporally localized facts, general hypotheses, and theories. Sadegh-Zadeh has proposed an elaborate systematics of all types of medical hypotheses and knowledge the latter ones including classificatory knowledge, causal knowledge, experimental knowledge, theoretical knowledge, practical knowledge, clinical knowledge, and medical metaknowledge. Most important among them is what is called practical knowledge or know-how in medicine. By a formally precise explication of this knowledge type he shows that medical-practical knowledge actually consists of conditional norms, i.e., deontic conditionals, mainly conditional obligations. This is one of the reasons why Sadegh-Zadeh considers medicine a deontic discipline. Specifically, he views clinical practice as practiced morality because clinical decision-making is nothing but the application of conditional obligations of