upperparts are dusky-brown, the head is deep brownish-buff (darker on the cap), the bill is entirely black and the iris is pale, dull creamy-yellow. The song is a variable, often repeated series of suweet-chu notes, and the call is a sharp chep. Distribution and habitat It occurs in lowlands of the Guianas, Venezuela, eastern Colombia, eastern Ecuador, eastern Peru, northern and eastern Bolivia and the Amazon basin in Brazil. In Brazil it is, except for populations in the relatively open lowlands of north-eastern Roraima and along the Branco River and lower Rio Negro, apparently largely absent from the regions north of the northern bank of the Amazon River, but these regions are generally very poorly known and its presence cannot be discounted, especially in the section between the lower Rio Negro and Rio Jari (the river on the border between Pará and Amapá). This is a bird of swamps, mangrove, várzea and other semi-open areas near water. It is generally common, and even occurs in lightly wooded wet habitats in towns or cities (e.g. Manaus and Puerto Maldonado). Behaviour The red-capped cardinal feeds on insects, rice and fruit. It is usually found in conspicuous pairs or family groups. If there is a well-marked breeding season, it extends over much of the year. The red-capped cardinal has been recorded to breed at least from June to September in northern South America but at Sacha Lodge at the Napo River (Ecuador) an adult was seen feeding a fledgling shiny cowbird (a brood parasite) in late March. This suggests that breeding can also occur as early as February/March. There is no indication for a difference in breeding seasons between the red-capped and the masked cardinals. They build a shallow open cup nest, some wide and high outside with a wide by deep cup, in a tree or some other secure spot. In Ecuador, a nest in the Cuyabeno Wildlife Reserve was built in the roots of a Macrolobium sp. standing in water, while one at Sacha Lodge was above ground in a tree. For nest material, it uses rootlets, thin twigs, and ferns. The clutch is two or three eggs. These have a background colour varying between whitish and dull olive and have dense dark brown flecks and blotches, heavier at the blunt end. They measure about . This species is parasitised by the shiny cowbird (Molothrus bonariensis). References Further reading ffrench, Richard;