and fall to the ground serving as important food for winter birds at a time of scarce resources. The flowers are attractive as nectar sources for insects such as bees, wasps, flies, and small butterflies. The commonly-encountered pale patches on leaves are due to the leaf-mine insect Phytomyza ilicis. It is an invasive species on the West Coast of Canada and the United States as well as in Hawaii. Cultivation Ilex aquifolium is widely grown in parks and gardens in temperate regions. Hollies are often used for hedges; the spiny leaves make them difficult to penetrate, and they take well to pruning and shaping. AGM cultivars Numerous cultivars have been selected, of which the following have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:- I. aquifolium 'Amber' (female) 'Argentea Marginata' 'Ferox Argentea' 'Golden Queen' 'Handsworth New Silver' 'J.C. van Tol' 'Madame Briot' 'Pyramidalis' 'Silver Queen' Ilex × altaclerensis The hybrid Ilex × altaclerensis was developed at Highclere Castle in Hampshire, England, in 1835, a cross between I. aquifolium and the tender species I. perado. The following cultivars have gained the RHS AGM:- 'Belgica Aurea' 'Camelliifolia' 'Golden King' 'Lawsoniana' Chemistry, toxicity, tea and traditional uses Holly berries contain alkaloids, caffeine, theobromine, saponins, caffeic acid, and a yellow pigment, ilixanthin. The berries are generally regarded as toxic to humans. Accidental consumption may occur by children or pets attracted to the bright red berries. The berries are emetic, possibly due to the compound ilicin. Caffeine and theobromine found in the plant are generally toxic to dogs and cats. The leaves of yerba mate, also in the genus Ilex, are used to make a caffeinated beverage called mate or Paraguayan tea. In traditional medicine, holly is supposed to be diuretic, a relief from fever, and a laxative. Other uses Between the thirteenth and eighteenth centuries, before the introduction of turnips, Ilex aquifolium was cultivated for use as winter fodder for cattle and sheep. Less spiny varieties of holly were preferred, and in practice the leaves growing near the top of the tree have far fewer spines, making them more suitable for fodder. Ilex aquifolium was once among the traditional woods for Great Highland bagpipes before tastes turned to imported dense tropical woods such as cocuswood, ebony, and African blackwood. References External links Ilex aquifolium - information, genetic conservation units and related resources. European Forest Genetic Resources Programme (EUFORGEN) aquifolium Trees of Africa Trees