along the long-axis can review the LV outflow tract, LV at the base, and LV at the midsection. Structures visible: Aortic valve in short-axis Aortic valve dysfunction, aortic sclerosis/stenosis Tricuspid valve in long-axis Pulmonary valve in long-axis Right ventricle, including inflow and outflow tracts Left ventricle in short-axis Closer to the base can reveal the left ventricular outflow tract At the level of the base can show the movement of the mitral valve leaflets in short-axis At the level of mid-LV can show papillary muscles Measurements in this view can be used to quantify the heart: Aortic valve area by planimetry Color doppler of all four valves Spectral doppler of tricuspid and pulmonary valves Apical four chamber (A4C) This view is obtained at the apex of the heart and looking toward the base of the heart (where the valves are). In this view, the mitral valve, tricuspid valve, and all four chambers are visible. This view shows the right ventricle from base to apex and is a useful view to estimate RV systolic function. TAPSE (= tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion) is also measured in this view with M-mode through the lateral tricuspid annulus. Structures: Inferior septum and anterior lateral segments of the left ventricle Right ventricle Left atrium Right atrium Mitral valve Tricuspid valve Measurements in this view can be used to quantify the heart: RV size and function; TAPSE Left atrial size Right atrial size Mitral valve flow is best seen in this view and has the best angle with probe to estimate flows Tricuspid valve flow Tissue doppler at the mitral valve annulus (septum and lateral wall) for diastolic function Agitated saline bubble study for right to left shunting (PFO, ASD, VSD) With contrast, apical and mural LV thrombi can be easily seen Apical three chamber (A3C) This view is obtained at the same window as the apical four chamber and then rotation of the probe. In this view, the mitral valve and aortic valve are in view and is roughly similar to the parasternal long axis. In this view, the LV outflow tract is best in alignment with the probe and so gives the best estimate of flow through the LVOT, which is commonly used to estimate aortic stenosis. Structures: Aortic valve Mitral valve Left ventricle Left atrium Measurements in this view can be used to quantify the heart: Left ventricular outflow tract volume-time integral (LVOT