to be the indicator functions on the cylinders of the product topology). In the later case, it has a continuous spectrum, with eigenvalues in the unit disk of the complex plane. That is, given the cylinder , the operator G shifts it to the left: . Taking to be the indicator function which is 1 on the cylinder (when ), and zero otherwise, one has that . The series then is an eigenfunction with eigenvalue . That is, one has whenever the summation converges: that is, when . A special case arises when one wishes to consider the Haar measure of the shift operator, that is, a function that is invariant under shifts. This is given by the Minkowski measure . That is, one has that . Relationship to the Riemann zeta function The GKW operator is related to the Riemann zeta function. Note that the zeta function can be written as which implies that by change-of-variable. Matrix elements Consider the Taylor series expansions at x = 1 for a function f(x) and . That is, let and write likewise for g(x). The expansion is made about x = 1 because the GKW operator is poorly behaved at x = 0. The expansion is made about 1 − x so that we can keep x a positive number, 0 ≤ x ≤ 1. Then the GKW operator acts on the Taylor coefficients as where the matrix elements of the GKW operator are given by This operator is extremely well formed, and thus very numerically tractable. The Gauss–Kuzmin constant is easily computed to high precision by numerically diagonalizing the upper-left n by n portion. There is no known closed-form expression that diagonalizes this operator; that is, there are no closed-form expressions known for the eigenvectors. Riemann zeta The Riemann zeta can be written as where the are given by the matrix elements above: Performing the summations, one gets: where is the Euler–Mascheroni constant. These play the analog of the Stieltjes constants, but for the falling factorial expansion. By writing one gets: a0 = −0.0772156... and a1 = −0.00474863... and so on. The values get small quickly but are oscillatory. Some explicit sums on these values can be performed. They can be explicitly related to the Stieltjes constants by re-expressing the falling factorial as a polynomial with Stirling number coefficients, and then solving. More generally, the Riemann zeta can be re-expressed as