Mpongwé women to engage in sexual and domestic acts with European men in exchange for a bridewealth. As a result of centuries of contact with the Europeans, a mixed-race population emerged: the métis. Métis could be found in almost every Mpongwé family during this time. Mpongwé families even encouraged their daughters to engage with European men. Such unions were not considered legitimate marriages under French law, but were in Mpongwé communities as long as family consent and a bridewealth were given. These marriages provided an avenue for women to acquire property and to obtain French citizenship. As these interracial unions continued into the 20th century, African and French societies sought to restrict these unions as Mpongwé women began to claim their European ancestry as a means to assert their voice in society. The métis population not only confronted gender roles within the African community, but also challenged the permeability of social and legal hierarchies under colonial rule. Notable people Simone Saint-Dénis (1930-2008) - Gabonese trade union leader Culture References Further reading David Gardinier, Historical Dictionary of Gabon 2nd ed. (The Scarecrow Press, 1994) pp. 232–235 Rachel Jean-Baptiste, "A Black Girl Should Not Be With a White Man" Journal of Women's History 22.2 (2010): 56–82. Ethnic groups in Gabon