of the heart that effect repolarization, there are many pharmaceuticals that have the same effect. On top of that, repolarization is also altered based on the location and duration of the initial action potential. In action potentials stimulated on the epicardium, it was found that the duration of the action potential needed to be 40–60 msec to give a normal, upright T-wave, whereas a duration of 20–40 msec would give an isoelectric wave and anything under 20 msec would result in a negative T-wave. Early repolarization is a phenomenon that can be seen in ECG recordings of ventricular cells where there is an elevated ST segment, also known as a J wave. The J wave is prominent when there is a larger outward current in the epicardium compared to the endocardium. It has been historically considered to be a normal variant in cardiac rhythm but recent studies show that it is related to an increased risk of cardiac arrest. Early repolarization occurs mainly in males and is associated with a larger potassium current caused by the hormone testosterone. Additionally, although the risk is unknown, African American individuals seem more likely to have the early repolarization more often. Early repolarization syndrome As mentioned in the previous section, early repolarization is known as appearing as elevated wave segments on ECGs. Recent studies have shown a connection between early repolarization and sudden cardiac death, which is identified as early repolarization syndrome. The condition is shown in both ventricular fibrillation without other structural heart defects as well as an early depolarization pattern, which can be seen on ECG. The primary root of early repolarization syndrome stems from malfunctions of electrical conductance in ion channels, which may be due to genetic factors. Malfunctions of the syndrome include fluctuating sodium, potassium, and calcium currents. Changes in these currents may result in overlap of myocardial regions undergoing different phases of the action potential simultaneously, leading to risk of ventricular fibrillation and arrhythmias. Upon being diagnosed, most individuals do not need immediate intervention, as early repolarization on an ECG does not indicate any life-threatening medical emergency. Three to thirteen percent of healthy individuals have been observed to have early repolarization on an ECG. However, patients who display early repolarization after surviving an event of early repolarization syndrome (a sudden-cardiac death experience), an implantable cardioverter-defibrillator (ICD) is strongly recommended. In addition, a patient may be more prone to atrial