courts for captures by both for their own warships and for privateers to whom they had given commissions, although these were formally issued in the name of the states general. From the 1620s, the states general also delegated authority to the Dutch East India Company and the Dutch West India Company to issue Letters of marque valid within each company's area of operation. In the 17th century, the greatest number of privateers operated under the jurisdiction of the Admiralty of Zeeland, and its councillors based in Middelburg spent a great deal of time dealing with the complex business of adjudicating prizes. Prizes were normally sold by auction, and the large numbers captured in the 17th century wars against Spain, England and France depressed prices and restricted the prize money crews received. Although prize money was an important supplement to the income of the officers of Dutch warships, there has been little research on how the five admiralties calculated the amounts of prize money distributed to the officers and men capturing prizes. The lieutenant-admiral of an admiralty generally received four times as much as the captain responsible for a capture, and the vice-admiral twice as much: in both cases, these flag-officers shared in all ships and goods taken by captains in their admiralties, even when not present at the capture. In 1640, Maarten Tromp, a lieutenant-admiral was owed 13,800 guilders, mostly his share of prize money from the Battle of the Downs the previous year. Both captains and flag officers in the Dutch fleet sometimes put the pursuit of prize money before discipline. In the Four Days' Battle of June 1666, several Dutch ships left the fleet either towing English ships they had captured or in pursuit of prizes, and Cornelis Tromp was extremely reluctant to burn after it had run aground and been damaged, despite the orders of his commander, Michiel de Ruyter. Tromp attempted to claim compensation for its loss for many years. For ordinary seamen, prize money was rare, the amounts small and payment was often delayed. In many cases, prize money was paid in installments over several years and crew members frequently sold advance notes for the later instalments at far below their face value, especially in the 18th century, when several of the Admiralties were in financial difficulties. Privateering was already established when the Dutch Republic broke away from Spain: it quickly developed in the late