role of Archbishop of Canterbury in 1633 signalled this shift most of all. One of Charles' main concern was the liturgical and religious unity of his Three Kingdoms. His government tried to squash dissent legalistically, by making use of the Court of High Commission and the Star Chamber. One very prominent example of this was the punishment of three dissenters- William Prynne, Henry Burton (theologian) and John Bastwick- in 1637; they were pilloried, whipped and mutilated by cropping and then imprisoned indefinitely for their publication and authorship of anti-episcopal pamphlets. Liturgical shifts were important to the theology of Laud. A greater insistence on the usage of the Book of Common Prayer in all services (which was enforced by episcopal visitation); the placement of the altar at the East end of the Church; and kneeling for the reception of the sacrament were all hallmarks of Laudian liturgy. This was all encompassed within a policy called 'the beauty of holiness' (this phrase coming from Psalm 96), which described how Christian worship should be couched in ceremony and splendour to further devotion. Foreshadowing debates that would later emerge over clerical dress, Laud also imposed a rule which decreed all ministers should wear a surplice when performing a service. All of these reforms and changes were often criticised by Puritan and other opponents as a return to popery and the vicious influence of Roman Catholicism returning to a semi-reformed English Church. Whilst opposition from the Church of Scotland as well as radical Puritans was strong and consistent throughout Personal Rule, there was little opposition from the English population at large. Indeed, the Church was generally accepted as becoming more ceremonial in its style of worship, such as through the acceptance of the installation of Laudian altar rails. It is estimated that as many as three-quarters of England's parish churches had altar rails installed by 1639. However, much of this ceremonial progress was undone by Parliamentary decree upon the calling of the Long Parliament, which ordered the destruction of all altar rails in 1641. Historians generally agree that Laudian reforms were divisive, but disagree over the salience of religious issues in the bringing about of the end of Personal Rule. John Morrill (historian) argued that, 'it is impossible to overestimate the damage done by the Laudians'. Other historians, like David Smith (historian) and Ian Gentles argue similarly the primacy of religious issues in the coming