be found growing in the Elymus farctus ssp. boreali-atlanticus foredune community, the pioneer vegetation on foredunes, with Elytrigia juncea (E. farctus) as a dominant species. Sea holly is a poor competitor that generally thrives in open areas, declining when habitats are invaded by shrubby species such as Rosa rugosa, Hippophae rhamnoides, Elaeagnus commutata and Salix repens due to substantial shading effects This is because sea holly is a light-demanding plant, although it is protected against water stress through excessive insolation thanks to its succulent equifacial leaves. Sea holly has deep, well-developed taproots for water storage, allowing the plant to survive long dry periods that may occur in its habitat. The root system also shows a high degree of plasticity in response to the dynamics of coastal ecosystems and may consequently develop a rhizome-like structure. For example, in response to permanent sand burial, the root internodes gradually lengthen in such a way that the perennating buds are brought closer to the ground surface for ensuring the plants' survival throughout the growing seasons. Status Despite a widespread native European distribution, populations of this species have been declining substantially in the northern parts of its range, with some of these already having become extinct. It is now threatened or endangered in most European countries and included in endangered plant lists and Red Data Books of several of these countries In Britain, its historic decline may be at least partly attributable to being dug up from the wild on account of its popularity as an ornamental plant in gardens on dry soils. In culture, use and relationship with humans Like other species in the genus, E. maritimum has been traditionally consumed to combat various ailments, especially thanks to the plant’s high antioxidant activity and content of phenolic and flavonoid compounds. It has been utilised for its diuretic, stimulant, cystotonic, stone inhibitor, aphrodisiac, expectorant and anthelmintic properties Moreover, essential oils, extracted by hydro-distillation, from the aerial parts of the plant have been found to contain oxygenated sesquiterpenes with antimicrobial activity against E. coli and L. monocytogenes. The roots of E. maritimum were formerly candied as a sweetmeat and recommended by Dioscorides as a remedy for flatulence. The young shoots may also be eaten like asparagus. Sea holly has often been represented in paintings and other artwork, such as in works by Irish artist Patrick O’Hara and on postage stamp prints such as the 1967 one-franc