"third world" may not be indicative of a causal relationship. He seems to take the position that different systems may be better suited to the peculiar circumstances of different countries. (p. 96) * In favor of parliamentary systems, he cites: Juan Linz and Arturo Valenzuela, eds., The Failure of Presidential Democracy: Comparative Perspectives, vol. 1. Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994. In favor of presidential systems, he cites: Matthew Soberg Shugart and John M. Carey, Presidents and Assemblies: Constitutional Design and Electoral Dynamics. Cambridge University Press, 1992. p. 41-42. Dahl does note that instability is more common in new democracies: International comparisons Dahl finds meaningful comparisons to the American Constitution only in other countries with similar conditions. He says that there have been only 22 countries, including the United States which have been "steadily democratic" since 1950. His book identifies the following constitutional attributes as important for comparison: Federalism. Is the country a federal union of strong local governments (for example, states, provinces, cantons), or a unitary state? In order to be federal, the subordinate units must be protected by constitutional law or practice, have substantial autonomy, and have substantial power to pass legislation. Bicameralism. Are there two houses in the legislature, both with substantial powers? "Unequal" representation in upper house. Are votes in one house of the legislature allocated by governmental subunit (for example, state, province, canton), not by population? Strong judicial review of national legislation: The power to declare unconstitutional laws duly passed by parliament and/or signed by the president. (As distinct from the ability to strike down acts of subordinate governments, such as states or provinces.) Electoral system Single-Member District Plurality, also known as First Past the Post (FPTP). There is one seat per district, and the candidate with the most votes (a plurality) wins. Proportional Representation (the fairest electoral system). There are multiple seats for each voting district. They are divided up in one of several ways, based on the proportion of the vote that individual candidates or political parties receive. Party lists Multi-member proportional (MMP) Single Transferable Vote (STV) Semi-PR French two-round system. Alternative vote (AV) Political parties Two-party system. Two dominant parties control the executive and the vast majority of seats in the legislature. Multi-party system. Three or more political parties exert significant influence in the legislature. Overall structure. Is there a presidential system with a strong separation of powers between the executive and the