was responsible for his daughter Rukayya's death and the person who killed his Uncle Hamza. According to historian Bernard Lewis, forced conversions played a role especially in the 12th century under the Almohad dynasty of North Africa and Andalusia. He is however also of the opinion that other incidents of forced conversions have been rare in Islamic history. He adds that "In the early centuries of Islamic rule there was little or no attempt at forcible conversion, the spread of the faith being effected rather by persuasion and inducement." A few well-known examples of forced conversion are: Anusim of Meshhad, Jewish community forced on pain of death to convert in 1839 under Safavid rule. Most continued Jewish practices in secret and many of their descendants returned to Judaism in the early 20th century. Francis Bok—Sudanese-American activist, from Christianity; later returned to his Christian faith. Steve Centanni and Olaf Wiig—forced to convert at gunpoint by terrorists of the Holy Jihad Brigades. Sabbatai Zevi—convert from Judaism, 17th century mystic, pseudo-Messiah and the self-proclaimed "King of Jews." Converted ostensibly of his own free will, while in prison. Although, some speculate that he may have been executed for treason had he not converted. Muslim authorities were opposed to his death. See also Criticism of Islam Ghazwa-e-Hind Persecution of Buddhists by Muslims Islam and Judaism Christianity and Islam Mormonism and Islam Hinduism and Islam Jainism and Islam Islam and Sikhism Islam and antisemitism Persecution of Shia Muslims Conversion of non-Muslim places of worship into mosques Islamic missionary activity Divisions of the world in Islam Religious intolerance Notes References External links