not all men who subscribe to masculinity expectations are violent. In fact, most men, in general, are not violent. For those who are violent, ideals of masculinity seem to play some causal role in their violence. Research shows that "violence is more likely among men who experience a disconnection between their personal circumstances and their emotions". Evidently, there seems to be some connection between the masculine expectation of suppressing or disconnecting from one's emotions, and one's tendency to be violent. Universal lived experience Although marital rape is not always defined as such in different cultures, there is a universal understanding of the violation that comes with rape. Yllö & Torres argue that "marital rape is regularly constituted across cultures as a locally recognized social violation—one that is understood to impede women in those particular cultural contexts from aspiring to a good human life." An aspect of this violation is the notion that the victim has not given their consent, however, historically and presently, consent is not always connected to marital sex. In the United States, a woman's personhood, and therefore her consent, only began with the suffragist movement that sought women's access to equal citizenship. Globally, many cultures do not require a woman's consent in marriage because procreation is at the root of such an alliance. Further, some women are forced into marriage where her consent is not considered or required. Despite this cultural variance, "women across many cultures do experience the violation of rape in marriage—even if the way that such violations are experienced and understood differs from culture to culture". Problems in prosecuting marital rape The criminalization of marital rape does not necessarily mean that these laws are enforced. A lack of public awareness, as well as reluctance or outright refusal of authorities to prosecute is common globally. For instance, in Ireland, where marital rape was made illegal in 1990, by 2016 there had been only two persons convicted of marital rape. Additionally, gender norms that place wives in subservient positions to their husbands, make it more difficult for women to recognize spousal rape or feel confident that it will be addressed by law enforcement. There are, and have been, both contemporary and historic problems with prosecuting the perpetrators of spousal rape. One author concluded that chief amongst them has been the reluctance of the various legal systems to recognize it as a crime at all. For example,