the subsequent Quaternary glaciation, the African and Eurasian populations became isolated for good. The recent separation as species was proposed after mtDNA cytochrome b sequence and nDNA microsatellite fingerprinting analysis of specimens of the subspecies Saxicola torquatus axillaris but not S. t. torquatus, and hence this species was briefly known as S. axillaris. Subspecies There are 13 recognised subspecies. They differ slightly in size, and more in the extent of the orange-red on the upper breast of the males, and whether the lower breast is white with a distinct boundary from the upper breast, or pale orange with an indistinct boundary from the darker upper breast. The extent of the orange-red also varies with time of year, often extending on to the belly outside the breeding season. S. t. felix Bates, 1936 – southwest Saudi Arabia and west Yemen S. t. albofasciatus Rüppell, 1840 – southeast Sudan and northeast Uganda to central Ethiopia upper breast black, not orange-red S. t. jebelmarrae Lynes, 1920 – east Chad and west Sudan S. t. moptanus Bates, 1932 – Senegal and south Mali The smallest subspecies. S. t. nebularum Bates, 1930 – Tropical West Africa from Sierra Leone to west Ivory Coast Extensive orange-red on breast and also flanks. S. t. axillaris (Shelley, 1885) – east Democratic Republic of the Congo, Kenya, north and west Tanzania S. t. promiscuus Hartert, 1922 – south Tanzania to east Zimbabwe and west Mozambique Very limited orange-red on uppermost part of breast only. S. t. salax (Verreaux, J & Verreaux, E, 1851) – east Nigeria to northwest Angola, Bioko Island S. t. stonei Bowen, 1931 – east and south Angola to southwest Tanzania south to north South Africa and Botswana S. t. clanceyi Courtenay-Latimer, 1961 – coastal west South Africa S. t. torquatus (Linnaeus, 1766) – central South Africa S. t. oreobates Clancey, 1956 – Lesotho S. t. voeltzkowi Grote, 1926 – Grande Comore Description The males have a black head, a white half-collar, a black back, a white rump, and a black tail; the wings are black with a large white patch on the top side of the inner wing. The upper breast is usually dark orange-red, with a sharp or gradual transition to white or pale orange on the lower breast and belly depending on subspecies. In a few, black replaces the orange breast feathers in part or entirely. Females have brown rather than black above