depth analyzed over the crater area is uniform). In bulk measurement, a rough or rounded crater bottom would not adversely impact analysis. Under the best conditions, depth resolution in the single nanometer range has been achieved (in fact, within-molecule resolution has been demonstrated). The chemistry of ions and neutrals in vacuum is called gas phase ion chemistry and is part of the analytical study that includes glow discharge. Powering modes In analytical chemistry, glow discharges are usually operated in direct-current mode. For direct-current, the cathode (which is the sample in solids analysis) must be conductive. In contrast, analysis of a non conductive cathode requires the use of a high frequency alternating current. The potential, pressure, and current are interrelated. Only two can be directly controlled at once, while the third must be allowed to vary. The pressure is most typically held constant, but other schemes may be used. The pressure and current may be held constant, while potential is allowed to vary. The pressure and voltage may be held constant while the current is allowed to vary. The power (product of voltage and current) may be held constant while the pressure is allowed to vary. Glow discharges may also be operated in radio-frequency. The use of this frequency will establish a negative DC-bias voltage on the sample surface. The DC-bias is the result of an alternating current waveform that is centered about negative potential; as such it more or less represent the average potential residing on the sample surface. Radio-frequency has ability to appear to flow through insulators (non-conductive materials). Both radio-frequency and direct-current glow discharges can be operated in pulsed mode, where the potential is turned on and off. This allows higher instantaneous powers to be applied without excessively heating the cathode. These higher instantaneous powers produce higher instantaneous signals, aiding detection. Combining time-resolved detection with pulsed powering results in additional benefits. In atomic emission, analyte atoms emit during different portions of the pulse than background atoms, allowing the two to be discriminated. Analogously, in mass spectrometry, sample and background ions are created at different times. Application to analog computing An interesting application for using glow discharge was described in a 2002 scientific paper by Ryes, Ghanem et al. According to a Nature news article describing the work, researchers at Imperial College London demonstrated how they built a mini-map that glows along the shortest route between two points. The