of the Xinhai Revolution, despite Chinese troops having withdrawn from Tibet, the Republic of China officially maintained that Tibet was an integral part of China but did not attempt to re-occupy it. In 1913, Tibet and the Bogd Khanate of Mongolia signed a treaty proclaiming their independence from China, and their mutual recognition. In 1914 a treaty was negotiated in India, the Simla Convention, representatives of China, Tibet and Britain participated. Again, Chinese suzerainty over Tibet was recognized and a boundary negotiated between British India and Tibet which was very generous to Britain. The treaty was never signed by the Chinese and thus never came into force. The Chinese raised a number of objections, especially their refusal to recognize any treaty between Tibet and Britain. The subsequent outbreak of the world wars and civil war in China caused distractions for the major powers and China, and the Tibetan government continued to exercise effective control over much of the historic lands of Tibet until 1950 despite endemic war with China on its eastern frontier during much of that period. Relations with Britain During most of the Republican period Tibet looked to Britain for diplomatic and military aid with respect to China. Military aid was given, but in only small quantities. Following expulsion of the Chinese Tibet declared itself independent but was recognized by no nation other than Mongolia. Military clashes continued on the eastern frontier with China but a truce was called, while China, Tibet, and Britain attempted to negotiate a comprehensive settlement at Simla in India from 1913 to 1915. This was a failure with respect to China, which refused to assent to expansive Tibetan demands despite having no effective control, or even access, to most of the lands claimed by Tibet. However a successful agreement was made between Tibet and Britain which established mechanisms for trade. War continued on the eastern frontier with China until a truce was signed in October, 1918 which endured until 1930. Attempts at a settlement with China were fruitless due to Tibetan demands that China adhere to the Simla Accord and nationalist popular sentiment in China. Kuomintang Pacification of Qinghai The Chinese Muslim Generals Ma Qi and his son Ma Bufang, who pledged allegiance to the Chinese government, initiated a bloody campaign against Tibetans in Qinghai province to subdue the region. Sino-Tibetan War In 1932, the Muslim Qinghai and Han-Chinese Sichuan armies of the