the inguinal canal or abdominal, while the other 50% are atrophic, and usually located in the scrotum. Diagnostic laparoscopy is often advised to determine the location of non-palpable testis. Prescrotal orchiopexy is often used for low inguinal testes, reducing surgical time and patient discomfort as compared to other methods, while also reducing the risk of complications. Additionally, hernias and hydroceles can be successfully repaired during this procedure. This approach maintains the high success rate seen in other surgical methods. Standard open inguinal orchiopexy is most appropriate procedure for palpable testes. With this technique, the spermatic cord and testicular vessels can be easily visualized and a patent processus vaginalis can be easily corrected. This approach requires a second incision to secure the testicle within the scrotum (as compared to the prescrotal approach). Laparoscopic orchiopexy is best used for abdominal testis, while mobile/peeping testis distal to the inguinal ring should be approached with the standard one-stage laparoscopic or open orchiopexy. The major proposed benefits of laparoscopic orchiopexy are the possibility of high retroperitoneal dissection and/or rerouting the testes through a shorter pathway medial to the inferior epigastric vessels (called the “Prentiss maneuver”) for a more favorable scrotal position. The benefits of both techniques is debated, with neither showing a difference in success rates. For palpable undescended testes, multi-study analysis has shown that there is no significant difference in safety or success rates between standard open inguinal and laparoscopic approaches, with the latter being more expensive and associated with a higher rate of complications (extensive high retroperitoneal dissection with scrotal hematomas and wound infection, Prentiss maneuvers with hemorrhage from epigastric vessels and wound infection). Fowler-Stephens orchiopexy is a two-stage procedure applied for high intra-abdominal testes (often with short vascular pedicle) or non-mobile testis. This method makes use of collateral blood supply to maintain testicular blood flow, allowed the testis to be brought down further to reach the scrotum without tension. Stage 1 involved vessel ligation (spermatic arteries, as well as inferior epigastric, cremasteric, and vas deferens arteries), with a period of 6 months to allow for collateral blood supply to develop. Stage 2 involved testicular mobilization and fixation within the dartos pouch, which is often performed with laparoscopy. The two-staged Fowler-Stephens is now performed as routine management for intra-abdominal testes at many institutions. Microvascular autotransplantation is another option for patients with intra-abdominal testes, particularly in those with bilateral undescended testes. This technique uses