carriers to be collected. Integrated Systems Semiconductor detectors are often commercially integrated into larger systems for various radiation measurement applications. Automated Sample Changing for Germanium Detectors Gamma spectrometers using HPGe detectors are often used for measurement of low levels of gamma-emitting radionuclides in environmental samples, which requires a low background environment, usually achieved by enclosing the sample and detector in a lead shield known as a 'lead castle'. Automated systems have been developed to sequentially move a number of samples into and out of the lead castle for measurement. Due to the complexities of opening the shield and moving the samples, this automation has traditionally been expensive, but lower-cost autosamplers have recently been introduced. Radioactive Waste Assay Machines Semiconductor detectors especially HPGe are often integrated into devices for characterising packaged radioactive waste. This can be as simple as detectors being mounted on a moveable platform to be brought to an area for in-situ measurements and paired with shielding to restrict the field-of-view of the detector to the area of interest for one-shot "open detector geometry" measurements, or for waste in drums, systems such as the Segmented Gamma Scanner (SGS) combine a semiconductor detector with integrated mechatronics to rotate the item and scan the detector across different sections. If the detector field of view is scanned across small areas of the item in multiple axes as is done with a Tomographic Gamma Scanner (TGS), Tomography can be used to extract 3D information about the density and gamma emissions of the item. Gamma Cameras Semiconductor detectors are used in some Gamma Cameras and Gamma imaging systems See also Lazarus effect Pandemonium effect Synthetic diamonds Total absorption spectroscopy X-ray spectroscopy Microstrip detector Hybrid pixel detector Liulin type instruments References Experimental particle physics Ionising radiation detectors Medical imaging Particle detectors X-ray instrumentation