imagoes. Aposematism Large white butterflies emit an unpleasant smell which deters predators. In addition, large whites are an aposematic species, meaning that they display warning colours, which benefits the large whites against predation. This aposematic colouration occurs in the larval, pupal, and imago stages, where toxic mustard oil glycosides from food plants are stored in the individuals' bodies. Aposematism is not entirely related to Müllerian mimicry; however, large white larvae often benefit from multiple other aposematic larvae from other species, such as the larvae of Papilio machaon. Relationship to people Role as pests The crops most susceptible to P. brassicae damage in areas in Europe are those in the genus Brassica (cabbage, mustard, and their allies), particularly Brussels sprouts, cabbage, cauliflower, kohlrabi, rape, swede, and turnip. The attacks to crops are rather localized and can lead to 100% crop loss in a certain area. In addition, because of its strong inclination to migrate, adults may infest new areas that were previously free from attack. Because many of the host plants of P. brassicae are sold for consumption, damage by these butterflies can cause a great reduction of crop value. Larvae may also bore into the vegetable heads of cabbage and cauliflower and cause damage. High populations of these larvae may also skeletonise their host plants. In present-day areas such as Great Britain, P. brassicae are now less threatening as pests because of natural and chemical control reasons. However, it is still considered a pest in other European countries, in China, India, Nepal, and Russia. In fact, it is estimated to cause over 40% yield loss annually on different crop vegetables in India and Turkey. Subspecies Subspecies include the following: Pieris brassicae azorensis Rebel, 1917 Pieris brassicae brassicae (Linnaeus, 1758) Pieris brassicae catoleuca Röber, 1896 Pieris brassicae cyniphia (Turati, 1924) Pieris brassicae cypria Verity, 1908 Pieris brassicae italorum Stauder, 1921 Pieris brassicae nepalensis Gray, 1846 Pieris brassicae ottonis Röber, 1907 Pieris brassicae subtaeniata (Turati, 1929) Pieris brassicae vazquezi Oberthür, 1914 Pieris brassicae verna Zeller, 1924 Pieris brassicae wollastoni (Butler, 1886) † See also Madeiran large white References External links brassicae Butterflies of Africa Butterflies of Asia Butterflies of Europe Butterflies described in 1758 Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus Agricultural pest insects