government was forced to trade rank and titles in order to obtain grain, using a practise called napsok pogwan (appointment through grain contributions), and the yangban elite, which was exempt from household taxes, exploited the occasion to increase its landholdings, thereby further depriving the central government of taxes raised on property. The total military and civilian casualties, as estimated by the late 19th-century historian, George H. Jones, were one million, and total combat casualties were estimated at between 250,000 and 300,000. A total of over 100,000 Japanese, 185,000 Korean and over 29,000 Chinese troops were killed, and an estimated 50,000 to 60,000 captives were taken by the Japanese throughout the war. Among those captured, a total of 7,500 were later returned to Korea through diplomatic means at the conclusion of the conflict. A large portion of the remaining captives were sold to European traders – mainly Portuguese in Macau, who then resold them throughout Southeast Asia. Although Korea suffered the most of the three combatants, there were some significant technological and cultural transfers that resulted from the war. Arquebus rifles, which the Joseon Court had initially dismissed as ineffective and useless due to their low rate of fire, was rapidly adopted during and after the war by the Joseon Military and production began as early as 1593. Some scholars believe the Joseon-Ming Army was not easily driven out and defeated during the reignition of hostilities in 1597 was in part due to the widespread adoption of arquebuses in the Joseon military. Besides this, Catholicism was first introduced in Korea during the war, as Catholic missionaries had begun arriving in Japan before the war and had become acquainted. In Korea, many of the first converts to Catholicism were Korean captives in Japan, records indicate more than 7,000 Korean captives converted from 1594 to 1598. Spanish Missionary Gregorio de Cespedse (1551–1661) was a prominent driver behind this missionary work, and was also the first recorded Westerner to arrive in Korea and the only European eyewitness to the war. Last but not least, significant food and luxury items were introduced to Korea via the invasions. Evidence heavily suggests this, because Korean records initially recorded chili peppers, one of the most important ingredients in modern Korean cuisine as "Japanese mustard", "southern barbarian herb" and "Japanese herb." The captives brought to Japan, including scholars, craftsmen, medicine makers, and gold smelters, provided Japan with many cultural