relationships such as distance, connectivity and directional relationships between spatial units, and visualizing both the raw data and spatial analytic results within a cartographic context. Subtypes include: Geovisualization (GVis) combines scientific visualization with digital cartography to support the exploration and analysis of geographic data and information, including the results of spatial analysis or simulation. GVis leverages the human orientation towards visual information processing in the exploration, analysis and communication of geographic data and information. In contrast with traditional cartography, GVis is typically three- or four-dimensional (the latter including time) and user-interactive. Geographic knowledge discovery (GKD) is the human-centered process of applying efficient computational tools for exploring massive spatial databases. GKD includes geographic data mining, but also encompasses related activities such as data selection, data cleaning and pre-processing, and interpretation of results. GVis can also serve a central role in the GKD process. GKD is based on the premise that massive databases contain interesting (valid, novel, useful and understandable) patterns that standard analytical techniques cannot find. GKD can serve as a hypothesis-generating process for spatial analysis, producing tentative patterns and relationships that should be confirmed using spatial analytical techniques. Spatial decision support systems (SDSS) take existing spatial data and use a variety of mathematical models to make projections into the future. This allows urban and regional planners to test intervention decisions prior to implementation. See also General topics Buffer analysis Cartography Complete spatial randomness Concepts and Techniques in Modern Geography Cost distance analysis GeoComputation Geospatial intelligence Geospatial predictive modeling Dimensionally Extended nine-Intersection Model (DE-9IM) Geographic information science Mathematical statistics Modifiable areal unit problem Point process Proximity analysis Spatial autocorrelation Spatial descriptive statistics Spatial relation Technical geography Terrain analysis Tobler's first law of geography Tobler's second law of geography List of spatial analysis software Specific applications Boundary problem (in spatial analysis) Extrapolation domain analysis Fuzzy architectural spatial analysis Geodemographic segmentation Geographic information systems Geoinformatics Geostatistics Permeability (spatial and transport planning) Spatial econometrics Spatial epidemiology Suitability analysis Viewshed analysis References Further reading Abler, R., J. Adams, and P. Gould (1971) Spatial Organization–The Geographer's View of the World, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Anselin, L. (1995) "Local indicators of spatial association – LISA". Geographical Analysis, 27, 93–115. Benenson, I. and P. M. Torrens. (2004). Geosimulation: Automata-Based Modeling of Urban Phenomena. Wiley. Fotheringham, A. S., C. Brunsdon and M. Charlton (2000) Quantitative Geography: Perspectives on Spatial Data Analysis, Sage. Fotheringham, A. S. and M. E. O'Kelly