for both the mentor and mentee. Research is also available that suggests no effect or negative effects from mentoring, especially if the relationship with the adult fails. Formal mentoring has been better studied in the research and, therefore, more findings are available on this topic. In a review of literature, it was suggested that an emphasis in quality of mentoring relationship and programming has been steadily increasing in the research and a shift in outcome measures is apparent, with most studies measuring general youth development as opposed to reductions in particular deviant behaviors. In another review of literature, 10 studies were analyzed and found a moderate positive effect on mentee grades, reduction of substance use, reduction of some delinquent behaviors, but not with youth self-esteem. These studies suggest that, although research is conflicting, there is typically an overall positive effect as a result of a mentoring relationship. This positive effect is more likely with the use of established best practices and within the population of youth classified as delinquent or "at risk". Quantitative analysis shows that academic-based mentoring has stronger associations with outcomes than does general youth mentoring. Most research agrees, however, that further research is necessary and that research with more rigorous methods would be beneficial to the field. Benefits Literature that looks at the effects of cross-age peer mentoring suggests that while these programs may not always be effective, they have been correlated with "improvements on academic self-esteem and connectedness." Published literature also indicates that "formal community-based youth mentoring relationships" allow for successful intervention with children in difficult or at-risk environments. Mentoring programs for youth are mentioned as having significant benefits such as lower dropout rates in high school and subsequently increased graduation rates, along with an increase of enrollment into and graduation from institutions of higher education. On a day to day basis, youth participating in mentoring relationships demonstrate better attendance with fewer unexcused absences. Students adopt a more positive attitude towards formal classroom learning with more formidable relationships between students, teachers, and parents. Youths also acquire more self-confidence and better behavior at home and school. In turn, this improves their motivation to learn in a given subject area. Youth mentoring draws on positive theories of "development-clinical psychology." These theories see the value of relationships characterized by communication, support, and trust, which shapes the character development of children. For teachers, mentoring means enhanced skills in supervision and