three to six pounders, and the British found themselves at a distinct disadvantage against French cannon. In fact, the Duke of Wellington forbade his gunners to engage in counter-battery fire against the superior French weapons and ordered them to focus on firing at enemy troops. The artillery was divided in horse artillery and foot artillery. Each cannon was manned by five gunners. The anti-personnel bias of British artillery was boosted by the invention of a fused spherical case-shot, designed by General Sir Henry Shrapnel to explode over the heads of enemy troops and shower them with musket balls. Ranges Rockets Another British invention was the Congreve rocket, which was intended to shoot a barrage of 12-pounder explosives in the general direction of the enemy. Unfortunately, the rockets were not very accurate and although they did see action in Iberia as well as in Germany during the Battle of Leipzig, they were not viewed as being particularly effective. Mostly they effected terror in the enemy troops, who were unfamiliar with this kind of weapon. The French initially thought that the rocket troops were lancers, as the firing device seemed from a distance to be a lance. Commanders Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington Robert Craufurd Thomas Graham, 1st Baron Lynedoch Henry Paget, 1st Marquess of Anglesey Rowland Hill, 1st Viscount Hill Sir Isaac Brock Stapleton Cotton, 1st Viscount Combermere Sir Thomas Picton Sir John Moore William I of the Netherlands as Dutch Commander Sir Edward Pakenham John Le Marchant Colin Halkett Charles Alten Allied forces At the beginning of the wars the tactics of the allied forces were different from the British tactics. For example, they tried to use the column, but as they almost always lost against the French, they had to develop another system. Their approach became more and more similar to the British systems, although with some differences: the Prussian line was three man deep, in contrast to the two man deep line of the British army. Austrian Empire Commanders included: Karl Philipp, Prince of Schwarzenberg Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen Karl Mack von Leiberich Archduke John of Austria Kingdom of Portugal The army of Portugal was in great need of modernisation. Quite a number of British officers joined the Portuguese army for that reason, rising in rank. They formed the army after the example of the British army and formed a force with great fighting spirit and