Elaphe gloydi (now considered Pantherophis gloydi), exemplify this type of defense mechanism; they mimic the rattling vibration of rattlesnakes when they encounter danger. Another common way of defense is by smearing a foul-smelling musk on their predators. The musk is originated from the contents of the anal gland and the intestinal tract. The second line of defense, generally involves striking the intruder with their teeth if they are further provoked. Locomotion Elaphe spp. move forward using side-to-side, serpentine movement. They use the curved ventral scales of their bodies to grab the rough ground surfaces and then push against the ground to generate a forward movement. Thus, the smoother the ground is, the harder it is for them to move across it. Many species apply similar mechanisms when climbing trees. Predation Adult Elaphe spp. primarily prey on rodents (i.e., mice and chipmunks), bird eggs, and young birds. Juveniles feed on small lizards, young mice, and occasionally small frogs (i.e., tree frogs). Elaphe spp. hunt by waiting motionless in a fixed position until the prey comes near enough to attack. Then, they strike the prey and bite it. They use their Jacobson's organ to track and find their prey. Being constrictors, Elaphe spp. kill the prey by creating enormous pressure on the prey's chest. As they continue to coil more tightly, the pressure on the chest prevents the blood from circulating into the heart, which eventually leads to heart failure. They usually bite the prey first to maintain their grip on the prey before they start this deadly mechanism. In addition, they do not chew their food, but swallow it whole. Habitat and distribution Elaphe spp. live in a great variety of environments, depending on species and subspecies. Most are terrestrial or semiarboreal, but some burrow in sand or loose soil. The genus formerly contained species found on every continent except Antarctica. Taxonomic revisions have renamed most of these former Elaphe, leaving only 10 Eurasian taxa remaining in Elaphe. Species The following 17 species are recognized as being valid. Elaphe anomala (Boulenger, 1916) Elaphe bimaculata Schmidt, 1925 Elaphe cantoris (Boulenger, 1894) Elaphe carinata (Günther, 1864) Elaphe climacophora (H. Boie, 1826) Elaphe davidi (Sauvage, 1884) Elaphe dione (Pallas, 1773) Elaphe hodgsoni (Günther, 1860) Elaphe moellendorffi (Boettger, 1886) Elaphe quadrivirgata (H. Boie, 1826) Elaphe quatuorlineata (Bonnaterre, 1790) Elaphe sauromates (Pallas, 1811) Elaphe schrenckii Strauch, 1873 Elaphe taeniura (Cope, 1861) Elaphe urartica Jablonski, Kukushkin, Avcı,