lay people alike. Validity research Since its introduction into the scientific literature in 1998, a great deal of research has been conducted in order to examine the psychometric properties of the IAT as well as to address other criticisms on validity and reliability. Construct validity The IAT is purported to measure relative strength of associations. However, some researchers have asserted that the IAT may instead be measuring constructs such as salience of attributes or cultural knowledge. Predictive validity A 2009 meta-analysis lead-authored by Greenwald concluded that the IAT has predictive validity independent of the predictive validity of explicit measures. A follow-up meta-analysis lead-authored by Frederick L. Oswald criticised Greenwald's study for overestimating the correlations between IAT scores and discriminatory behavior by including studies that didn't actually measure discriminatory behavior (such as those which found a link between high IAT scores and certain brain patterns) and treating published findings in which high IAT scores correlated with better behavior toward out-group than in-group members as evidence of implicitly biased individuals overcompensating. Oswald's team found that implicit measures were only weakly predictive of behaviors and no better than explicit measures. Some research has found that the IAT tends to be a better predictor of behavior in socially sensitive contexts (e.g. discrimination and suicidal behaviour) than traditional "explicit" self-report methods, whereas explicit measures tend to be better predictors of behavior in less socially sensitive contexts (e.g. political preferences). Specifically, the IAT has been shown to predict voting behavior (e.g. ultimate candidate choice of undecided voters), mental health (e.g. a self-injury IAT differentiated between adolescents who injured themselves and those who did not), medical outcomes (e.g. medical recommendations by physicians), employment outcomes (e.g. interviewing Muslim-Arab versus Swedish job applicants), education outcomes (e.g. gender-science stereotypes predict gender disparities in nations' science and math test scores), and environmentalism (e.g., membership of a pro-environmental organisation). When patients were tested on their subconscious feelings towards death, suicidal patients are put at risk. Research shows that those experiencing deep suicidal thoughts are not likely to share their true experiences. In applied settings, the IAT has been used in marketing and industrial psychology. For example, in determining the predictors of risk-taking behaviour of pilots in general aviation, attitudes towards risky flight behaviour as measured through an IAT have shown to be a more accurate forecast of risky flight behaviour than traditional explicit attitude or personality scales. The IAT has also been