by aphids, leafhoppers, glasshouse Red Spider Mite, scale insects, caterpillars, rose leaf-rolling sawfly, and leaf-cutting Bee. When a gall wasp lays eggs into a leaf axillary or terminal bud the plant develops a chemically induced distortion known as rose gall (see photo). Buds and leaves may be eaten by rabbits and deer, despite the thorns. It may be affected by rose rust (see photo) and powdery mildews. It is notably susceptible to honey fungus. Cultivation and uses The flesh (shells) of rose hips from dog roses contain high levels of antioxidants, mainly polyphenols and vitamin C, as well as carotenoids and vitamins B and E along with natural sugars, organic acids, polyunsaturated fatty acids, phenolics, and essential oil, making them excellent for consumption. Rose hip essential oil is composed mainly of alcohols, monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes. The fruit is used to make syrup, tea, preserves (jam and marmalade), used in the making of pies, stews, and wine. The flowers can be made into a syrup, or can be eaten in salads, or candied or preserved in vinegar, honey and brandy. It has been grown or encouraged in the wild for the production of vitamin C from its fruit, especially during conditions of scarcity or during wartime. During World War II in the United States, Rosa canina was planted in victory gardens, and can still be found growing throughout the country, including roadsides and in wet, sandy areas along the coastlines.During World War II the British relied on rose hips and hops as the sources for their vitamins A and C and it was a common British wartime expression to say "We are getting by on our hips and hops." In Poland, the petals are used to make jam, particularly suitable for filling doughnuts. In Bulgaria, where it grows in abundance, the hips are used to make a sweet wine as well as tea. The hips are used as a flavouring in Cockta, a soft drink made in Slovenia. Forms of this plant are used as stocks for the grafting or budding of cultivated roses. Genetics Dog roses have an unusual kind of meiosis which is sometimes called permanent odd polyploidy, although it can also occur with even polyploidy (e.g. in tetraploids or hexaploids). Regardless of ploidy level, only seven bivalents are formed leaving the other chromosomes as univalents. Univalents are included in egg cells, but not in pollen. Similar processes occur