image cross-sections of a crystal's three-dimensional dispersion surface. This dynamical effect has found application in the precise measurement of lattice parameters, beam energy, and more recently for the electronics industry: lattice strain. History Isaac Newton studied refraction in prisms but failed to recognize the material dependence of the dispersion relation, dismissing the work of another researcher whose measurement of a prism's dispersion did not match Newton's own. Dispersion of waves on water was studied by Pierre-Simon Laplace in 1776. The universality of the Kramers–Kronig relations (1926–27) became apparent with subsequent papers on the dispersion relation's connection to causality in the scattering theory of all types of waves and particles. See also Ellipsometry Ultrashort pulse References External links Poster on CBED simulations to help visualize dispersion surfaces, by Andrey Chuvilin and Ute Kaiser Angular frequency calculator Equations of physics