and /rʼ/ are used for Spanish borrowings. Many of the first words borrowed from Spanish into Wappo referred to items that were traded. In some cases, words may have been borrowed from other American Indian languages in contact with Spanish, rather than directly from Spanish. Below are two examples of borrowings from Spanish. čičaloʔ "pea" was borrowed from chícharo háros "rice" was borrowed from arroz While contact with English has not greatly influenced Wappo's lexicon, it has influenced its syntax. Thompson et al. cite the sentences below as examples of an expanded use of the benefactive case that could have arisen from contact with English. While Wappo has a predicate-final structure, question words are clause-initial in most cases. This is unexpected, and possibly resulting from English influence. In another potential example of English influence, the word neʔ-khiʔ "have" is used in deontic expressions, and its meaning is adapted as "have to". Regional variation Wappo had 5 varieties: Clear Lake Wappo Russian River Wappo ( Western Wappo) Northern Wappo Central Wappo Southern Wappo See also Wappo Yuki–Wappo languages References BENEF:benefactive case DIR:directional prefixes Bibliography Radin, Paul. 1929. A grammar of the Wappo language. University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology 27:1-194. Sawyer, Jesse O., English-Wappo Vocabulary (Aug 25, 1965). UC Publications in Linguistics. Paper vol. 43. Sawyer, Jesse O., "Wappo studies" (1984). Survey Reports. Report #7. Sturtevant, William C. (Ed.). (1978–present). Handbook of North American Indians (Vol. 1-20). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. (Vols. 1–3, 16, 18-20 not yet published). External links Wappo Language Project at the Western Institute for Endangered Language Documentation Wappo language overview at the Survey of California and Other Indian Languages Wappo Texts OLAC resources in and about the Wappo language Wappo, California Language Archive Wappo Indians of Napa County: Language A Reference Grammar of Wappo Yuki–Wappo languages Indigenous languages of California Extinct languages of North America language History of Sonoma County, California Languages extinct in the 1990s