Hz for railway electrification; phase converters are, therefore, used to change both phases and frequency. In the Soviet Union, they were used on AC locomotives to convert single phase, 50 Hz to 3-phase for driving induction motors for traction motor cooling blowers, etc. Alternatives to rotary converters Alternatives exist to rotary phase converters for operation of three-phase equipment on a single-phase power supply. Static phase converters These may be an alternative where the issue at hand is starting a motor, rather than polyphase power itself. The static phase converter is used to start a three-phase motor. The motor then runs on a single phase with a synthesised third pole. However, this makes the power balance, and thus motor efficiency, extremely poor, requiring de-rating the motor (typically to 60% or less). Overheating, and quite often destruction of the motor, will result from failing to do so. (Many manufacturers and dealers specifically state that using a static converter will void any warranty.) An oversized static converter can remove the need to de-rate the motor, but at an increased cost. Inverter drives (VFDs) The popularity of the Variable-frequency drive (VFD) has increased in the last decade, especially in the home-shop market. This is because of their relative low cost and ability to generate three-phase output from single phase input. A VFD converts AC power to DC and then converts it back to AC through a transistor bridge, a technology that is somewhat analogous to that of a switch-mode power supply. As the VFD generates its AC output from the DC bus, it is possible to power a three-phase motor from a single-phase source. Nevertheless, commercial-grade VFDs are produced that require three-phase input, as there are some efficiency gains to be had with such an arrangement. A typical VFD functions by rapidly switching transistors on and off to "chop" the voltage on the DC bus through what is known as pulse-width modulation (PWM). Proper use of PWM will result in an AC output whose voltage and frequency can be varied over a fairly wide range. As an induction motor's rotational speed is proportional to input frequency, a change in the VFD's output frequency will cause the motor to change speed. Voltage is also changed in a way that results in the motor producing a relatively constant torque over the useful speed range. The output of a quality VFD is an approximation of a sine