be negative, referring to design projects unfit for construction. These visionary architects included Alexander Asadov, Evgeni Ass, Yuri Avvakumov, Alexey Bavykin, Mikhail Belov, Alexander Brodsky, Mikhail Filippov, Sergei Kiselev, Evgeni Krupin, Boris Levyant, Andrei Miroshin, Ilya Utkin, and Evgeni Velichkin. In the 1980s Soviet Union, architecture was standardized and limited by economics and the ideological controls of the state. Paper architecture offered freedom of expression and individualism. Some paper architects were inspired by Giovanni Battista Piranesi and the Russian avant-garde. They created visionary designs that they knew were never going to be constructed. Nevertheless, they were considered escapists, deserters, and dissidents. In 1981, these architects worked with new leadership at the Union of Architects, receiving permission to participate in international competitions for the first time. When the paper architects won fifty competitions between 1981 and 1989, their visionary architecture began to be applauded within the Soviet Union. In 1992, the Moscow Institute of Architecture hosted the exhibit “Paper Architecture. Alma Mater”. After the exhibition, SBS Bank purchased the architectural drawings; ten years later, the drawings were added to the collection of a Russian museum. One work by the paper architects is Avvakumov’s Tower of Perestroika, an ironic reminiscence of Tatlin’s Monument to the Third International. Avvakumov created this design for a 1990 exhibit at the Russian Museum called “Temporary Monuments”. In the early 1990s, the Soviet Union fired forty percent of its architects. Many of these architects established private practices and used their creativity for actual buildings. Lebbeus Woods After working with the Finnish-American architect Eero Saarinen in the 1960s, the American architect Lebbeus Woods turned to visionary architecture around 1976. He produced a body of drawings and models that reimagine cities like Berlin, Paris, Havana, Sarajevo, and Vienna. Until his death in 2012, he was a professor at Cooper Union and other institutions, growing a "cult" of followers. He also maintained a blog for his ideas and reflections. He said, "Architecture should be judged not only by the problems it solves, but by the problems it creates." The Guardian noted that Woods created, "Dynamic compositions of splintered surfaces and twisted wiry forms, his fantastical scenes depicted alternative worlds, glimpses into a parallel universe writhing beneath the earth's crust." One of his visionary designs was for Albert Einstein's tomb which would "travel on a beam of light around the Earth." Only one of his designs resulted in a physical building—the