|| ara- matoku |- ! sun | uʔwʌh || aun |- ! moon | 'ʌ'un || aun |- ! water | ʌbʌl || bør |- ! fire | unih || nih̥ |- ! stone | utʌm || utom |- ! road, path | iʌh || |- ! name | ɛigil || |- ! eat | 'nʌsʌh || |- ! one | etin || |- ! two | biəs || bium |} Grammar Recent shifts have moved Arapesh languages from the typical Papuan SOV to a SVO order, along with a corresponding shift in adpositional order. Most modifiers usually precede the noun, though as a result of changes in word order genitives and nouns do not have a fixed order. The language's unique gender system is largely based on the ending of the noun. There are cognate pairings of each gender for singular and plural numbers. The whole gender system, unlike most of the comparable complexity in Niger–Congo languages, is sex-based: Gender IV is for all female beings and Gender VII for male ones. Arapesh culture forbids the use of personal names, so that kinship nouns are used extensively to address even intimate relatives. Arapesh languages also have a system of verbal nouns: there by default belong to gender VIII. Gender agreement, along with that for person and number, occurs with all adjectives, numerals and interrogative pronouns and the subject and object of verbs. Verbs in Arapesh languages are inflected by means of prefixes. The basic template for this inflection is the order SUBJECT-MOOD-ROOT. References External links WALS: Arapesh Arapesh Grammar & Digital Language Archive Further reading Dobrin, Lise M.: Concreteness in Grammar: The Noun Class Systems of the Arapesh Languages. Stanford: CSLI, 2012. Torricelli Range languages Languages of Papua New Guinea