by any other means of expression and publication," but has been applied against "writers, activists, artists, and bloggers" for "sexual orientation, religious beliefs, political opinions, or moral standing" since the Egyptian revolution of 2011. Arbitration According to Mohamed S. E. Abdel Wahab, "arbitration has established itself as a prominent method for resolving business, commercial, and investment disputes" in Egypt, based on 'Arbitration Law No.27 of the Year 1994'. Egyptian courts are "generally arbitration friendly" with judges "generally" accepting and supporting arbitral proceedings. Courts The Judiciary of Egypt consists of administrative and non-administrative courts, a Supreme Constitutional Court, penal courts, civil and commercial courts, personal status and family courts, national security courts, labour courts, military courts, and other specialized courts or circuits. Amendments to some articles of the 2014 Constitution passed by a public referendum followed on 19–22 April 2019, provide for the president to appoint the heads of the judicial bodies or authorities and to be head of the Supreme Council for the Judicial Authorities. Other members of that council include the head of the Supreme Constitutional Court, the heads of other judicial authorities, the head of the Cairo Court of Appeal and the Attorney-General. The Supreme Constitutional Court is the highest judicial power in Egypt. Article 25 of the Supreme Constitutional Court's Law No.48 of the Year 1979 (which was still in effect as of 2019), empowers the court to rule on: the constitutionality of laws and regulations; jurisdiction disputes between judicial bodies or authorities of judicial competence; disputes resulting from enforcement of contradictory rulings issued by two different judicial entities; interpretation of laws issued by the Legislative Authority and the decrees issued by the Head of the State in case of any divergence with respect to their implementation. Court of Cassation (Maḥkamet El Naqḍ) The Court of Cassation, the only one in its category, was established in 1931 and based in Cairo. The Court of Cassation, the exclusive body atop the judicial hierarchy in Egypt, was designated with the purpose of creating a central tool to provide exclusive and uniform interpretation and application of law. The jurisdiction of Court of Cassation basically includes consideration of challenges brought to it by either adversary or by the public prosecution. It also includes examining lawsuits related to judges' actions. In such a case, the court undertakes its role as a court of merit, rather than a court of law. It also