of the interpreter. Ismailism Several prominent Ismaili thinkers explained that ta’wil should be used to understand sharia law, sacred history and creation itself, as well as the anthropomorphic descriptions of God. Qadi al-Nu'man, a famous Ismaili Muslim jurist of the Fatimid period, believed that it is important to recognize and understand the symbolism behind the stories in the Quran based on certain verses that hint to an inner meaning, such as: “Thus your Lord will choose you and teach you the symbolic interpretation (ta’wil) of events (ahadith)” (Quran 12:21). Nasir-i Khusraw, a prominent Fatimid dignitary, explained that through revelation (tanzil), intellectual matters were transformed into a state that could be understood by humankind. Ta’wil is necessary to revert them to their original intellectual state. He also said that one must not be satisfied with the exoteric form but look for the person who can explain the original esoteric meaning to them. In saying this he alluded to the Imam of the Time. Al Mu’ayyad fi l-Din al-Shirazi, another prominent Ismaili thinker, further explains that ta’wil is what reunites the beginning (source) and the end (destination) of the circle of existence. Validity of esoteric interpretations There is almost no dispute among Muslims that the Quran has concealed meanings. However, not every esoteric interpretation of the Quran is necessarily valid. Some interpreters are known to have overplayed the allegorical aspects of the Quran by claiming privileged understanding of its contents and distorting its meaning. The authority of the person who extracts such meanings is also a matter of debate. Mainstream theologians were willing to accept the interpretations if certain conditions were met. One of the most important criteria is that the interpretation should not conflict with the literal meaning of the Quran. Suyuti (d. 1505 CE) believed that exegesis should be rigorous to avoid misunderstanding. Taftazani (d. 1390) believed that pure gnosis and perfection of faith can be achieved when the subtle allusions of the Quran are harmonized with the literal sense. Kristin Zahra Sands, in the beginning of her introduction, asks questions: How can one begin to say what God "meant" by His revelation? How does one balance the desire to understand the meaning of the Quran with the realistic fear of reducing it to the merely human and individualistic? How, most basically, is one best to approach the Quran to discover its richness and transforming possibilities? According to Sands, Quranic