the United States and many other countries have shown a large number of women with low levels. For this reason, there is a growing movement to recommend supplementation with 1000 IU of Vitamin D daily throughout pregnancy. A large number of pregnant women have been found to have low levels of vitamin B12, but supplementation has not yet been shown to improve pregnancy outcome or the health of the newborn. Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids, specifically docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), are beneficial for fetal development. Several studies have shown lower risk of preterm delivery and low birth weight in mothers with higher intakes. Iron is needed for the healthy growth of the fetus and placenta, especially during the second and third trimesters. It is recommended that the first and third trimester retain concentrations greater than 11 grams/deciliter and that the second trimester has levels above 10.5 grams per deciliter. It is also essential before pregnancy for the production of hemoglobin. There is no evidence that a hemoglobin level of 7 grams/100 ml or higher is detrimental to pregnancy, but it must be acknowledged that maternal hemorrhage is a major source of maternal mortality worldwide, and a reserve capacity to carry oxygen is desirable. According to the Cochrane review conclusions iron supplementation reduces the risk of maternal anaemia and iron deficiency in pregnancy but the positive effect on other maternal and infant outcomes is less clear. Nutrition during pregnancy The United States and the European Union have established vitamin and mineral recommendations for during pregnancy and lactation. The amounts in the table below are the higher of the two. The citations separately list recommendations for pregnancy and lactation. Recommendations (RDAs = Recommended Dietary Allowances and PRIs = Population Reference Intakes) are set higher than what has been determined to be average requirements so as to address women who have above average needs. For some nutrients there is not enough information to set a recommendation, so the term Adequate Intake (AI) is used based on what appears to be sufficient. *Adequate Intake †Not established. EU has not identified an AI for sodium or chloride, and does not consider chromium to be an essential mineral nutrient. Vitamin and mineral supplements Multiple micronutrient supplements taken with iron and folic acid may improve birth outcomes for women in low income countries. These supplements reduce numbers of low birth weight babies, small for gestational