krummholz habit, growing low to the ground even when mature with a wide trunk. Hybrids with J. osteosperma are occasionally found. In the John Day area of Oregon, it competes for sunlight among ponderosa pines at the bottom of some deep side canyons. However, it more commonly reaches with a bushier growth habit on open and barren ground. Ecology The cones are an important food for several birds, including American robin, Clark's nutcracker, phainopepla and cedar waxwing; these digest the fleshy cone scales and disperse the seeds in their droppings. The plants often bear galls caused by the juniper tip midge, Oligotrophus betheli. These are violet-purple fading to brown, in diameter, with dense modified spreading scale-leaves long and 2–3 mm broad at the base. Fire ecology In the past two decades, sagebrush steppe ecosystems have witnessed an expansion of Juniper throughout the western U.S. This alteration of vegetation change can be associated with the decreased fire frequency, overgrazing of livestock, and an alteration of climate that transformed into a more wet and mild climate. Fire scar data was collected and dated to display the expansion of western juniper. It started between 1875 and 1885, with a pinnacle rate of development between approximately 1905 and 1924. Since the 1990s use of prescribed fires to control expansion of the species has increased. The results of increased prescription fires show a positive effect on plant communities. Uses Like other junipers, J. occidentalis produces a crop of cones called a juniper berry. While original European gins used berries from J. communis, several distilleries—particularly in Bend, Oregon—have used local western juniper to flavor their gin. While not common as a lumber source, Oregon State University has sponsored research into the use of western juniper for commercial applications such as sign posts and guard rails. Western juniper lumber is noted for its durability and high compression strength. References Further reading Adams, R. P. (2004). Junipers of the World: The genus Juniperus. Trafford Publishing occidentalis Trees of the Northwestern United States Flora of California Flora of the Cascade Range Bird food plants Least concern flora of the United States Plants described in 1838