sum of the masses of its constituent particles. Discovered by Albert Einstein in 1905, it can be explained using his formula E = mc2, which describes the equivalence of energy and mass. The decrease in mass is equal to the energy emitted in the reaction of an atom's creation divided by c2. By this formula, adding energy also increases mass (both weight and inertia), whereas removing energy decreases mass. For example, a helium atom containing four nucleons has a mass about 0.8% less than the total mass of four hydrogen atoms (each containing one nucleon). The helium nucleus has four nucleons bound together, and the binding energy which holds them together is, in effect, the missing 0.8% of mass. If a combination of particles contains extra energy—for instance, in a molecule of the explosive TNT—weighing it reveals some extra mass, compared to its end products after an explosion. (The end products must be weighed after they have been stopped and cooled, however, as the extra mass must escape from the system as heat before its loss can be noticed, in theory.) On the other hand, if one must inject energy to separate a system of particles into its components, then the initial mass is less than that of the components after they are separated. In the latter case, the energy injected is "stored" as potential energy, which shows as the increased mass of the components that store it. This is an example of the fact that energy of all types is seen in systems as mass, since mass and energy are equivalent, and each is a "property" of the other. The latter scenario is the case with nuclei such as helium: to break them up into protons and neutrons, one must inject energy. On the other hand, if a process existed going in the opposite direction, by which hydrogen atoms could be combined to form helium, then energy would be released. The energy can be computed using E = Δmc2 for each nucleus, where Δm is the difference between the mass of the helium nucleus and the mass of four protons (plus two electrons, absorbed to create the neutrons of helium). For lighter elements, the energy that can be released by assembling them from lighter elements decreases, and energy can be released when they fuse. This is true for nuclei lighter than iron/nickel. For heavier nuclei, more energy is needed