In social science research, social-desirability bias is a type of response bias that is the tendency of survey respondents to answer questions in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others. It can take the form of over-reporting "good behavior" or under-reporting "bad", or undesirable behavior. The tendency poses a serious problem with conducting research with self-reports. This bias interferes with the interpretation of average tendencies as well as individual differences. Topics subject to social-desirability bias Topics where socially desirable responding (SDR) is of special concern are self-reports of abilities, personality, sexual behavior, and drug use. When confronted with the question "How often do you masturbate?," for example, respondents may be pressured by the societal taboo against masturbation, and either under-report the frequency or avoid answering the question. Therefore, the mean rates of masturbation derived from self-report surveys are likely to be severely underestimated. When confronted with the question, "Do you use drugs/illicit substances?" the respondent may be influenced by the fact that controlled substances, including the more commonly used marijuana, are generally illegal. Respondents may feel pressured to deny any drug use or rationalize it, e.g. "I only smoke marijuana when my friends are around." The bias can also influence reports of number of sexual partners. In fact, the bias may operate in opposite directions for different subgroups: Whereas men tend to inflate the numbers, women tend to underestimate theirs. In either case, the mean reports from both groups are likely to be distorted by social desirability bias. Other topics that are sensitive to social-desirability bias include: Self-reported personality traits will correlate strongly with social desirability bias Personal income and earnings, often inflated when low and deflated when high Feelings of low self-worth and/or powerlessness, often denied Excretory functions, often approached uncomfortably, if discussed at all Compliance with medicinal-dosing schedules, often inflated Family planning, including use of contraceptives and abortion Religion, often either avoided or uncomfortably approached Patriotism, either inflated or, if denied, done so with a fear of other party's judgment Bigotry and intolerance, often denied, even if it exists within the responder Intellectual achievements, often inflated Physical appearance, either inflated or deflated Acts of real or imagined physical violence, often denied Indicators of charity or "benevolence," often inflated Illegal acts, often denied Voter turnout Individual differences in socially desirable responding In 1953, Allen L. Edwards introduced the notion of social desirability to psychology, demonstrating the role