such as better health and wages, would be three times the financial cost. Turkey's carbon emissions are costly, even without carbon tariffs from other countries. The short-term health co-benefits of climate change mitigation have been estimated at $800 million for Turkey in the year 2028 alone. investment in green energy is far smaller than the country's potential. Academics have estimated that if Turkey and other countries invested in accordance with the Paris Agreement, Turkey would break even around 2060. Fossil fuel subsidies According to the OECD, fossil fuel subsidies in 2019 totalled over 25 billion lira (US$ billion), nearly 1% of GDP. Economics professor Ebru Voyvoda has criticised growth policies based on the construction and real estate sectors, and said that moving from fossil fuels to electricity is important. According to a 2020 report by the International Institute for Sustainable Development: "Turkey also lacks transparency and continues to provide support for coal production and fossil fuel use, predominantly by foregoing tax revenue and providing state-owned enterprise investment." A MWh of electricity from Turkish lignite emits over a tonne of . Some electricity from these power stations is purchased by the state electricity company at a guaranteed price of US$50–55/MWh until the end of 2027, despite coal power subsidies being economically irrational. Coal miners' wages are subsidised. The Petroleum Market Law provides incentives for investors to explore for oil and produce it. According to the OECD, in 2019 the fuel tax exemption for naphtha, petroleum coke and petroleum bitumen was a subsidy of 6.7 billion lira (US$ billion), the largest of Turkey's fossil fuel subsidies that year. Petcoke is used in cement production. In other countries fossil fuel subsidies have been successfully scrapped by good communication from government, immediate cash transfers to poor people, energy price smoothing and energy transition support for households and firms. Carbon pricing Boğaziçi University has developed a decision-support tool and integrated assessment model for Turkey's energy and environmental policy. Over 400 (about 9%) of the world's voluntary carbon offset projects are in Turkey: mostly wind, hydro, and landfill methane projects. As elsewhere wildfires are a threat to forest carbon offsets. The main standards are the Gold Standard and the Verified Carbon Standard. Earlier academic assessment suggested a revenue-neutral carbon tax might be best for the Turkish economy, but carbon emission trading is more likely to be accepted politically, and technical work for a pilot emissions trading