dinosaur, specifically the Seismosaurus. 2005: Scientists resurrect extinct 1918 influenza virus. 2006: Neanderthals nuclear DNA sequence segments begin to be analyzed and published. 2007: Scientists synthesize entire extinct human endogenous retrovirus (HERV-K) from scratch. 2010: A new species of early hominid, the Denisovans, discovered from mitochondrial and nuclear genomes recovered from bone found in a cave in Siberia. Analysis showed that the Denisovan specimen lived approximately 41,000 years ago, and shared a common ancestor with both modern humans and Neanderthals approximately 1 million years ago in Africa. 2013: The first entire Neanderthal genome is successfully sequenced. More information can be found at the Neanderthal genome project. 2013: A 400,000-year-old specimen with remnant mitochondrial DNA sequenced and is found to be a common ancestor to Neanderthals and Denisovans, Homo heidelbergensis. 2015: A 110,000-year-old fossil tooth containing DNA from Denisovans was reported. 2018: Molecular Paleobiologists link polymers of N-, O-, S-heterocycle composition in carbonaceous fossil remains mechanistically to structural biomolecules in original tissues. Through oxidative crosslinking, a process similar to the Maillard reaction, nucleophilic amino acid residues condense with Reactive Carbonyl Species derived from lipids and sugars. The processes of biomolecule fossilization, identified via Raman spectroscopy of modern and fossil tissues, experimental modelling, and statistical data evaluation, include Advanced Glycosylation and Advanced Lipoxidation. 2019: An independent laboratory of Molecular Paleontologists confirms the transformation of biomolecules through Advanced Glycosylation and Lipoxidation during fossilization. The authors use Synchrotron Fourier-Transform Infrared spectroscopy. 2020: Wiemann and colleagues identify biological signatures reflecting original biomineralization, tissue types, metabolism, and relationship affinity (phylogeny) in preserved compositional heterogeneities of a diversity of carbonaceous animal fossils. This is the first large-scale analysis of fossils ranging in age from the Neoproterozoic to the Recent, and the first published record of biological signals found in complex organic matter. The authors rely on statistical analyses of a uniquely large Raman spectroscopy data set. 2021: Geochemists find tissue type signals in the composition of carbonaceous fossils dating back to the Tonian, and apply these signals to identify epibionts. The authors use Raman spectroscopy. 2022: Raman spectroscopy data revealing patterns in the fossilization of structural biomolecules have been replicated with Fourier-Transform Infrared spectroscopy and a diversity of different Raman instruments, filters, and excitation sources. The quagga The first successful DNA sequencing of an extinct species was in 1984, from a 150-year-old museum specimen of the quagga, a zebra-like species. Mitochondrial DNA (also known as mtDNA) was