mya. R. r. regulus (Linnaeus, 1758). Breeds in most of Europe; this is the nominate subspecies. R. r. himalayensis (Bonaparte, 1856). Breeds in the Himalayas; it is similar to the nominate subspecies, but slightly paler above and with whiter underparts. R. r. japonensis (Blakiston, 1862). Breeds in Eastern Asia, including Japan, Korea, China and Siberia; it is greener and has darker upper-parts than the nominate form, and has broad white wingbars. R. r. tristis (Pleske, 1892). Breeds in China and Central Asia, wintering in northeastern Afghanistan. Records of this race from Ladakh claimed by Meinertzhagen are considered to be fraudulent. It is distinctive, with the black edges to the crest largely absent. The crown of the male is yellower than in other forms, and the underparts are much duller and greyer. R. r. coatsi (Sushkin, 1904). Breeds in Russia and Central Asia, and is paler above than the nominate subspecies. R. r. yunnanensis (Rippon, 1906). Breeds in the Eastern Himalayas, Burma and China; it is like R. r. sikkimensis, but darker overall with dark green upper-parts and darker buff underparts. R. r. hyrcanus (Zarudny, 1910). Breeds only in Iran; it is like R. r. buturlini, but slightly darker. R. r. buturlini (Loudon, 1911). Breeds in Eastern Europe, the Caucasus and Central Asia. It is paler above than the nominate subspecies, and greyish-green rather than olive. R. r. sikkimensis (Meinertzhagen R. & Meinertzhagen A., 1926). Breeds in India and China. It is darker than R. r. himalayensis, and greener than the nominate subspecies. The Atlantic islands Two groups of goldcrest taxa are found on the Atlantic islands of Macaronesia. Birds on the Canary Islands are ancient colonists, whereas those on the Azores are of more recent origin. There are no goldcrests on Madeira, where the Madeira firecrest is the only Regulus species. The Canary Islands were colonised in two waves. The first step was the occupation of Tenerife and La Gomera 1.9–2.3 million years ago, followed by a separate invasion of El Hierro and La Palma 1.3–1.8 mya. Birds from the Canary Islands are particularly distinctive having a black forehead, pink-buff underparts and a darker closed wing, and have been sometimes treated either as a subspecies of the common firecrest or as a different Regulus species altogether. They were sometimes called the Tenerife goldcrest, no matter which of the islands they lived on; however, a 2006 study of the vocalisations of