without restriction. In 1984 Deborah Cohen became the first certified Reform mohelet; she was certified by the Berit Mila program of Reform Judaism. A small minority of Jews in the United States have chosen not to circumcise their sons. All major rabbinical organizations make the recommendation that male infants should be circumcised. The issue of converts remains controversial in Reform and Reconstructionist Judaism; circumcision of converts is not mandatory in either. Islam Despite its common practice in Muslim-majority nations, circumcision is considered to be sunnah (tradition) and not required for a life directed by Allah. According to historians of religion and scholars of Religious studies, the Islamic tradition of circumcision was derived from the Pagan practices and rituals of pre-Islamic Arabia. Although there is some debate within Islam over whether it is a religious requirement or mere recommendation, circumcision (called khitan) is practiced nearly universally by Muslim males. Islam bases its practice of circumcision on the Genesis 17 narrative, the same Biblical chapter referred to by Jews. The procedure is not explicitly mentioned in the Quran, however, it is a tradition established by Islam's prophet Muhammad directly (following Abraham), and so its practice is considered a sunnah (prophet's tradition) and is very important in Islam. For Muslims, circumcision is also a matter of cleanliness, purification and control over one's baser self (nafs). There is no agreement across the many Islamic communities about the age at which circumcision should be performed. It may be done from soon after birth up to about age 15; most often it is performed at around six to seven years of age. The timing can correspond with the boy's completion of his recitation of the whole Quran, with a coming-of-age event such as taking on the responsibility of daily prayer or betrothal. Circumcision may be celebrated with an associated family or community event. Circumcision is recommended for, but is not required of, converts to Islam. Christianity Traditionally, circumcision has not been practiced by Christians for religious reasons, with the practice being viewed as succeeded by Baptism, with the New Testament chapter Acts 15 recording that Christianity did not require circumcision from new converts. Christian denominations generally hold a neutral position on circumcision for prophylactic, cultural, and social reasons, while strongly opposing it for religious reasons. This includes the Catholic Church, which explicitly banned the practice of religious circumcision in the Council of Florence, and maintains a