of wasps in the genus Polistes. P. gallicus is one of 27 members of the subgenus Polistes (Polistes), which are typically very similar black-and-yellow species. This similarity has resulted in taxonomic complications in older literature. For instance, many references prior to 1985 misapplied the name to the European paper wasp, P. dominula. In terms of coloration, P. gallicus typically has yellow spots on the mandibles as well as a black hypopygium whereas P. dominula has often entirely black mandibles and always a largely yellow hypopygium. Additionally, many published studies for which no vouchered reference specimens are available cannot be reliably assigned to either species. P. gallicus is also very closely related to P. biglumis and P. mongolicus, which are members of the same species group. The former synonyms, P. foederatus and P. mongolicus, were restored from synonymy following revision of the genus in 2017 and are considered as distinct species again. Distribution and habitat The range of P. gallicus extends across much of Europe, where it is a common species. It can be found from northern Italy and southern Switzerland south into northwest Africa and east to Croatia and Corfu. The species inhabits a variety of climates and habitats throughout this range, although it more frequently nests in warm and dry regions, where its nests are built hanging in the open with the cells towards the ground. In cooler regions north of the Alps, its nests are often built in more protective enclosures such as in pipes or metal scraps. P. gallicus was first sighted in North America in Cambridge, Massachusetts in 1980 and has remained established in Massachusetts ever since. Also reported to be in Chile. Colony cycle Fertile foundress wasps come out of hibernation in the spring around mid May and build a new nest combining oral secretions with plant fibers, such as from sticks and bush branches, to make a paper pulp. A nest will begin to be constructed by late May to early April. Most nests are built by a single foundress, though in southern regions of Germany and Italy, two or more foundresses have been recorded building a cooperative nest. Each cell is formed in a hexagonal structure and are attached to a surface by a single stalk. The foundress will then lay a single egg directly in each brood cell. After about 2 weeks, the eggs hatch into larvae and are fed chunks of