between palatals (unless it is stressed and preceding /nʲ/) and when preceded by a consonant other than /p/, /t/, or /ʔ/ and followed by /j/. It is realized as [o] before /w/. /ə/ is consistently realized as [ʊ] between labials. Consonants Jamul Tiipai features a consonant inventory of 21 phonemes. Scholarly work describes some phonemes above as alveo-palatal, despite the fricative and affricate being normally described as post-alveolar and the approximant as palatal. However, this grouping is consistent with other Americanist works of the time. The phoneme /s/ in Jamul Tiipai is described as apico-dental. Consonants /m/ and /n/ can be syllabic when in, respectively, a post-stress position following a consonant and in the initial position followed by /t/ or /t͡ʃ/ and any vowel besides /ə/. /k/ becomes [] when following a stressed, non-front vowel. In a post-stress position, /t͡ʃ/ becomes [tʲ], while /x/ becomes []. In final position, /r/ is realized as []. There is one native word, nyímbi, that contains the voiced bilabial plosive //. Analysis of the term is complicated, so since the phoneme is only found in one native word, /b/ is not included in the above table. Both /j/ and /w/ form diphthongs with all possible preceding stressed vowels, while /j/ sometimes forms diphthongs with preceding /a/ and /aː/ in unstressed positions. Stress and syllable structure As is typical of other Yuman languages, Tiipai words contain a singular stressed syllable, always corresponding to the grammatical root. As prefixes vastly outnumber suffixes, stress is usually placed on the final syllable. Syllables are (C)V(C), where the V may be short or long. Biconsonantal clusters are permitted initially, medially, and finally, while triconsonantal clusters are permitted initially and medially. No clusters of a dental and alveolar consonant are permitted and identical consonants cannot form a cluster, with the exception of /ch/. Attested final consonant clusters are (with dashes separating phonemes): /m-lly/, /m-p/, /p-sh/, /r-s/, /y-lly/, /y-p/, /y-k/. Attested vowel clusters include: /a-aa/, /aa-a/, /aa-aa/, /aa-ii/, /uu-u/, /uu-uu/. The glottal stop /ʔ/ is only found in stem-initial or root-initial positions, or immediately proceeding a root, where it is followed by a stressed phoneme. The labialized velar consonants are only found syllable-initially in the pre-stress position. Phonological processes Roughly six major rules governing phonemic sound changes have been posited in Tiipai, listed below. Note that /e/ deletion may occur in other environments to restore initial and medial clusters, but since