HIV infection for such men, particularly in low-income countries. The finding that circumcision significantly reduces female-to-male HIV transmission has prompted medical organizations serving communities affected by endemic HIV/AIDS to promote circumcision as an additional method of controlling the spread of HIV. Prophylactic usage in developed countries Major medical organizations hold varying positions on the prophylactic efficacy of the elective circumcision of minors in the context of developed countries. Literature on the matter is polarized, with the cost-benefit analysis being highly dependent on the kinds and frequencies of health problems in the population under discussion and how circumcision affects them. The World Health Organization (WHO), UNAIDS, and American medical organizations take the position that it carries prophylactic health benefits which outweigh small risks, while European medical organizations generally hold the belief that in these situations its medical benefits are not counterbalanced by risk. Public health advocates of circumcision consider it to have a net health benefit, and therefore feel that increasing the circumcision rate is imperative. They recommend performing it during the neonatal period when it is less expensive and has a lower risk of complications. The American Academy of Pediatrics and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention stated that the benefits of circumcision outweigh the risks. Similarly, the World Health Organization in 2010 stated: Religious, cultural, and ethnic circumcision Worldwide, around half of all circumcisions are performed for religious or cultural reasons. Circumcision plays a major role in many of the world's cultures and religions. When performed for religious reasons, it is most common among Muslims and Jews, among whom it is near-universal. Circumcision is an integral or established practice for members of these faiths, as well as among the Samaritans and Druze. In some African and Eastern Christian denominations male circumcision is an established practice, and require that their male members undergo circumcision. It is commonly performed among members of the Coptic, Ethiopian, and Eritrean Orthodox Churches. Pathologies Circumcision is also used to treat various pathologies. These include pathological phimosis, refractory balanoposthitis and chronic or recurrent urinary tract infections (UTIs). Contraindications Circumcision is contraindicated in certain cases. These include infants with certain genital structure abnormalities, such as a misplaced urethral opening (as in hypospadias and epispadias), curvature of the head of the penis (chordee), or ambiguous genitalia, because the foreskin may be needed for reconstructive surgery. Circumcision is contraindicated in premature infants and those who are not clinically stable