the flow of lithium ions from the electrode to the electrolyte. Park et al. have developed a nanoscale polydopamine coating such that the SEI no longer interferes with the electrode; instead the SEI interacts with the polydopamine coating. Graphene and other carbon materials Graphene has been studied extensively for its use in electrochemical systems such as batteries since its first isolation in 2004. Graphene offers high surface area and good conductivity. In current lithium-ion battery technology, the 2D networks of graphite inhibit smooth lithium-ion intercalation; the lithium ions must travel around the 2D graphite sheets to reach the electrolyte. This slows the charging rates of the battery. Porous graphene materials are currently being studied to improve this problem. Porous graphene involves either formation of defects in the 2D sheet or the creation of a 3D graphene-based porous superstructure. As an anode, graphene would provide space for expansion such that the problem of volume expansion does not occur. 3D graphene has shown extremely high lithium ion extraction rates, indicating a high reversible capacity. As well, the random "house-of-cards" visualization seen below of the graphene anode would allow lithium ions to be stored not only on the internal surface of graphene, but also on the nanopores that exist between the single layers of graphene. Raccichini et al. also outlined the drawbacks of graphene and graphene-based composites. Graphene has a large irreversible mechanism during the first lithiation step. As graphene has a large surface area, this will result in a large initial irreversibility capacity. He proposed that this drawback was so large that graphene-based cells are “unfeasible”. Research is still being done on graphene in anodes. Carbon nanotubes have been used as electrodes for batteries that use intercalation, like lithium-ion batteries, in an effort to improve capacity. Titanium oxides Titanium oxides are another anode material that have been researched for their applications to electric vehicles and grid energy storage. However, low electronic and ionic capabilities, as well as the high cost of titanium oxides have proven this material to be unfavorable to other anode materials. Silicon-based anodes Silicon-based anodes have also been research namely for their higher theoretical capacity than that of graphite. Silicon-based anodes have high reaction rates with the electrolyte, low volumetric capacity and an extremely large volume expansion during cycling. However, recent work has been done to decrease volume expansion in silicon-based anodes. By creating a sphere of conductive carbon