the academic sense V. inaequalis has proved invaluable in the realm of genetic research of pathogenicity. It is one of the first ascomycete fungi to undergo genetic analysis and continues to be useful in that field. The fungi's mechanistic similarity to obligate parasites while still being able to be cultured in media has led to its repeated use in the study of the genes related to pathogenicity. Management Protection from initial inoculation, either via sexual ascospores or asexual conidia, with fungicide is the main form of pathogen management. Spray schedules should be created with plant and pathogen development timings in mind and thus should begin with an initial spray at budswell and repeated in 10 to 14 day intervals. Specifics of the spray intervals should also be determined by considering what spray is used, weather patterns (mainly rain and moisture), host species, host growth patterns, and the amount of fungal inoculum present. Cultural practices can also be used to limit or prevent apple scab infection. Orchard design and planting patterns focusing on increased aeration are important in ensuring that susceptible tissues dry prior to initial infection. Proper pruning can further aid this effect. Another form of cultural management is the implementation of proper sanitation. Fallen infected leaves in the fall should be collected and destroyed to reduce the total inoculum able to overwinter and infect the following year. Primary infection is mainly caused by the ascospores that overwinter in the fallen debris and the density of these spores in the spring is directly related to the speed and intensity of an apple scab outbreak. In addition to direct removal of fallen infected tissues, mulching of fallen leaves into the soil to destroy the ascospores is advisable. Application of nitrogenous fertilizer to speed up this process can be done immediately prior to leaf fall or as a ground application. More proactive methods of management exist in the form of genetically resistant cultivars and species. Apple cultivars such as Enterprise, Goldrush, Liberty, Jonafree, Macfree, Prima, Pristine, Redfree, and Sir Prize are resistant to apple scab infection along with multiple varieties of ornamental crab apples. Breeding of resistant lines has seen minimal acceptance in the Americas but more widespread success in Europe, though the durability of this resistance is always a concern. More recently, biofungicidal methods of control have emerged in studies with some promise being shown by the organism Microsphaeropsis ochracea in