{{DISPLAYTITLE:δ18O}} In geochemistry, paleoclimatology and paleoceanography δ18O or delta-O-18 is a measure of the ratio of stable isotopes oxygen-18 (18O) and oxygen-16 (16O). It is commonly used as a measure of the temperature of precipitation, as a measure of groundwater/mineral interactions, and as an indicator of processes that show isotopic fractionation, like methanogenesis. In paleosciences, 18O:16O data from corals, foraminifera and ice cores are used as a proxy for temperature. The definition is, in "per mil" (‰, parts per thousand): ‰ where the standard has a known isotopic composition, such as Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water (VSMOW). The fractionation can arise from kinetic, equilibrium, or mass-independent fractionation. Mechanism Foraminifera shells are composed of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and are found in many common geological environments. The ratio of 18O to 16O in the shell is used to indirectly determine the temperature of the surrounding water at the time the shell was formed. The ratio varies slightly depending on the temperature of the surrounding water, as well as other factors such as the water's salinity, and the volume of water locked up in ice sheets. also reflects local evaporation and freshwater input, as rainwater is 16O-enriched—a result of the preferential evaporation of the lighter 16O from seawater. Consequently, the surface ocean contains greater proportions of 18O around the subtropics and tropics where there is more evaporation, and lesser proportions of 18O in the mid-latitudes where it rains more. Similarly, when water vapor condenses, heavier water molecules holding 18O atoms tend to condense and precipitate first. The water vapor gradient heading from the tropics to the poles gradually becomes more and more depleted of 18O. Snow falling in Canada has much less H218O than rain in Florida; similarly, snow falling in the center of ice sheets has a lighter signature than that at its margins, since heavier 18O precipitates first. Changes in climate that alter global patterns of evaporation and precipitation therefore change the background ratio. Solid samples (organic and inorganic) for oxygen isotope analysis are usually stored in silver cups and measured with pyrolysis and mass spectrometry. Researchers need to avoid improper or prolonged storage of the samples for accurate measurements. Extrapolation of temperature Based on the simplifying assumption that the signal can be attributed to temperature change alone, with the effects of salinity and ice volume change ignored, Epstein et al. (1953) estimated that a increase of 0.22‰ is equivalent to