culture in terms of the village and the culture of the village in terms of the mainstream," thereby integrating the local culture into a larger whole. While vaidikas and, to a lesser degree, smartas, remained faithful to the traditional Vedic lore, a new brahminism arose which composed litanies for the local and regional gods, and became the ministers of these local traditions. Periodisation James Mill (1773–1836), in his The History of British India (1817), distinguished three phases in the history of India, namely Hindu, Muslim and British civilisations. This periodisation has been criticised, for the misconceptions it has given rise to. Another periodisation is the division into "ancient, classical, medieval and modern periods", although this periodization has also received criticism. Romila Thapar notes that the division of Hindu-Muslim-British periods of Indian history gives too much weight to "ruling dynasties and foreign invasions," neglecting the social-economic history which often showed a strong continuity. The division in Ancient-Medieval-Modern overlooks the fact that the Muslim-conquests took place between the eighth and the fourteenth century, while the south was never completely conquered. According to Thapar, a periodisation could also be based on "significant social and economic changes," which are not strictly related to a change of ruling powers. Smart and Michaels seem to follow Mill's periodisation, while Flood and Muesse follow the "ancient, classical, medieval and modern periods" periodisation. An elaborate periodisation may be as follows: Pre-history and Indus Valley Civilisation (until c. 1750 BCE); Vedic period (c. 1750-500 BCE); "Second Urbanisation" (c. 600-200 BCE); Classical Period (c. 200 BCE-1200 CE); Pre-classical period (c. 200 BCE – 300 CE); "Golden Age" of India (Gupta Empire) (c. 320–650 CE); Late-Classical period (c. 650–1200 CE); Medieval Period (c. 1200–1500 CE); Early Modern Period (c. 1500–1850); Modern period (British Raj and independence) (from c. 1850). Pre-Vedic religions (until c. 1750 BCE) Prehistory Hinduism may have roots in Mesolithic prehistoric religion, such as evidenced in the rock paintings of Bhimbetka rock shelters, which are about 10,000 years old (c. 8,000 BCE), as well as neolithic times. At least some of these shelters were occupied over 100,000 years ago. Several tribal religions still exist, though their practices may not resemble those of prehistoric religions. Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3300–1700 BCE) Some Indus valley seals show swastikas, which are found in other religions worldwide. Phallic symbols interpreted as the much later Hindu linga have been found in the Harappan remains.