A proton-exchange membrane, or polymer-electrolyte membrane (PEM), is a semipermeable membrane generally made from ionomers and designed to conduct protons while acting as an electronic insulator and reactant barrier, e.g. to oxygen and hydrogen gas. This is their essential function when incorporated into a membrane electrode assembly (MEA) of a proton-exchange membrane fuel cell or of a proton-exchange membrane electrolyser: separation of reactants and transport of protons while blocking a direct electronic pathway through the membrane. PEMs can be made from either pure polymer membranes or from composite membranes, where other materials are embedded in a polymer matrix. One of the most common and commercially available PEM materials is the fluoropolymer (PFSA) Nafion, a DuPont product. While Nafion is an ionomer with a perfluorinated backbone like Teflon, there are many other structural motifs used to make ionomers for proton-exchange membranes. Many use polyaromatic polymers, while others use partially fluorinated polymers. Proton-exchange membranes are primarily characterized by proton conductivity (σ), methanol permeability (P), and thermal stability. PEM fuel cells use a solid polymer membrane (a thin plastic film) which is permeable to protons when it is saturated with water, but it does not conduct electrons. History Early proton-exchange membrane technology was developed in the early 1960's by Leonard Niedrach and Thomas Grubb, chemists working for the General Electric Company. Significant government resources were devoted to the study and development of these membranes for use in NASA's Project Gemini spaceflight program. A number of technical problems led NASA to forego the use of proton-exchange membrane fuel cells in favor of batteries as a lower capacity but more reliable alternative for Gemini missions 1-4. An improved generation of General Electric's PEM fuel cell was used in all subsequent Gemini missions, but was abandoned for the subsequent Apollo missions. The fluorinated ionomer Nafion, which is today the most widely utilized proton-exchange membrane material, was developed by DuPont plastics chemist Walther Grot. Grot also demonstrated its usefulness as an electrochemical separator membrane. In 2014, Andre Geim of the University of Manchester published initial results on atom thick monolayers of graphene and boron nitride which allowed only protons to pass through the material, making them a potential replacement for fluorinated ionomers as a PEM material. Fuel cell PEMFCs have some advantages over other types of fuel cells such as solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC). PEMFCs operate at a lower temperature, are lighter and more compact, which