over the total distance (theoretical 10932 meters). The total test time amounts to 1180 s with an average speed of 33.35 km/h. Sometimes the NEDC is also quoted at 1220 s, which includes the initial 40 s with the vehicle at standstill and combustion engine off. Criticism Inability to represent real-life driving The NEDC was conceived when European vehicles were lighter and less powerful. The test offers a stylized driving speed pattern with low accelerations, constant speed cruises, and many idling events. However, accelerations are much steeper and variable in practice, which is in part caused by the power surplus of modern engines as the average-time decreased from 14 seconds in 1981 to 9 seconds in 2007. In 1998, a Swedish researcher criticized the NEDC standard for allowing large emission differences between test and reality. The UK consumer group Which?, criticized the NEDC test procedure as being out-of-date as its most recent update was made in 1997; before hybrid cars and stop-start technology was generally available. Which? claimed the test did not replicate real-world driving conditions and had numerous loopholes which cause the results to be unachievable in practice. It was also claimed that no official body polices the tests and the vehicle manufacturers can arbitrarily reduce their results by 4% at the end of the cycle. Weaknesses noted are: (i) that tests are not necessarily repeatable and comparable; (ii) the test-cycle does not include sustained motorway driving; (iii) test-cycles can be performed using optional economy settings which will not typically be selected by drivers; (iv) the test-cycle is performed with ancillary equipment such an air-conditioning and heated windows switched off; (v) the tests can be conducted at 2 km/h (1.2 mph) below the required speed thus using less fuel; (vi) roof-rails and passenger door-mirror can be removed for the test, to reduce drag; (vii) tyre inflation for the test can be set above the recommended pressure values to artificially reduce rolling resistance. Cycle beating For the emission standards to deliver real emission reductions it is crucial to use a test cycle that reflects real-world driving style. However, the fixed speeds, gear shift points and accelerations of the NEDC offer possibilities for manufacturers to engage in what is called 'cycle beating' to optimise engine emission performance to the corresponding operating points of the test cycle, while emissions from typical driving conditions would be much higher than expected, undermining the standards