the consequence of three unlike adaptive processes: maternal effects, niche construction and developmental plasticity, which all are influenced by the brain. While developmental plasticity demonstrates an adaptation by the offspring, niche construction and parental effects are result of parental selections rather than offspring fitness. Therefore, the thrifty phenotype can be described as a manipulation of offspring phenotype for the benefit of maternal fitness. The information that enters offspring phenotype during early development mirror the mother's own developmental experience and the quality of the environment during her own maturation rather than predicting the possible future environment of the offspring Other consequences Not all research into this topic has been conducted on diseases. Other research has explored the thrifty phenotype hypothesis as a causal factor for differing development into puberty and adulthood. A review on the literature, up to 2013, discussed not only the hierarchical tissue preservation within pancreatic cells, but research on limb shortening to preserve development of more vital organs and bones. An example of this phenomenon is a study published in 2018 by the Royal Society, which found that hypoxic stress from differing altitudes affected offspring limb length. Fetal overnutrition may also play a key role in development, increasing the likelihood of early puberty and obesity. Adverse effects Many human diseases in adulthood are related to growth patterns during early life, determining early-life nutrition as the underlying mechanism. Individuals with a thrifty phenotype will have "a smaller body size, a lowered metabolic rate and a reduced level of behavioral activity… adaptations to an environment that is chronically short of food" (Bateson & Martin, 1999). Those with a thrifty phenotype who actually develop in an affluent environment may be more prone to metabolic disorders, such as obesity and type II diabetes, whereas those who have received a positive maternal forecast will be adapted to good conditions and therefore better able to cope with rich diets. This idea (Barker, 1992) is now widely (if not universally) accepted and is a source of concern for societies undergoing a transition from sparse to better nutrition (Robinson, 2001). Risk factors of thrifty phenotype include advanced maternal age and placental insufficiency. Molecular mechanisms The ability to conserve, acquire and expend energy is believed to be an innate, ancient trait that is imbedded in the genome in a way that is quite protected against mutations. These changes are also believed to possibly be inherited across generations.