business wishes to seek certain contracts or benefits, or to be listed on the JSE), critics argue that BEE compliance increases the cost of doing business in South Africa, among other reasons because businesses may hire consultants and lawyers to help them navigate the complexity of the codes and other regulations. In 2018, for example, as a condition for increasing investment in South Africa, the European Union requested a relaxation of BEE ownership rules, calling the targets unfairly onerous. "Brain drain" Like the rest of South Africa's affirmative action policies, BEE – and the fact that some white citizens "feel marginalised" by it – has been linked to a brain drain of qualified workers from South Africa. However, one study notes that corporate brain drain from South Africa is "very low if not rare," and others argue that the emigration of some skilled workers "creates opportunity" for diversifying the relevant sectors while appointing their replacements. See also Economy of South Africa State-owned enterprises of South Africa References Further reading Acemoglu, Daron; Gelb, Stephen; Robinson, James A. (2007). "Black Economic Empowerment and Economic Performance in South Africa" (Unpublished working paper). Cargill, Jenny (2010). Trick Or Treat: Rethinking Black Economic Empowerment. Jacana Media. . Kilambo, Sixta R. (2021). "Black Economic Empowerment Policy and the Transfer of Equity and Mine Assets to Black People in the South Africa's Mining Industry". South African Journal of Economic and Management Sciences. 24 (1): 1–14. . . Law, Kate (1 July 2010). ""The Wild West World of BEE": Black Economic Empowerment Reviewed". Safundi. 11 (3): 313–323. . . Mebratie, Anagaw Derseh; Bedi, Arjun S. (2011). "Foreign Direct Investment, Black Economic Empowerment and Labour Productivity in South Africa". SSRN Electronic Journal. . . Ngwenya, Gwen (14 February 2019). "Eskom and BEE: A Total Eclipse of the Brain". Politicsweb. Retrieved 10 January 2022. Nicol, Martin (10 February 2021). "Black Economic Empowerment: Government is Undermining Its Own Policy on BBE Deals That Have a 'broad base'". Daily Maverick. Retrieved 10 January 2022. Vilakazi, Thando; Bosiu, Teboho (2021). "Black Economic Empowerment, Barriers to Entry, and Economic Transformation in South Africa". Structural Transformation in South Africa. Oxford: Oxford University Press. . External links BBBEE portal at the Department of Trade, Industry and Competition website South African National Accreditation System website BBBEE Commission website 1994 establishments in South Africa 2004 establishments in South Africa Affirmative action Black economic empowerment Black Economic Empowerment Ethnic