Ultisols are known from the Carboniferous period when forests first developed. Though known from far north of their present range as recently as the Miocene, Ultisols are surprisingly rare as fossils overall, since they would have been expected to be very common in the warm Mesozoic and Tertiary paleoclimates. Gardening in Ultisol The lack of organic matter in Ultisol makes it difficult for plants to grow without proper care and considerations. Soil amendments are generally required each year in order to sustain plant life in regions with primarily Ultisol soil. The use of soil tests, coupled with the corresponding provisions, can alleviate issues of nutrition and irrigation that can result from non porous Ultisol. Soil tests help indicate the pH, and red clay soil typically has a low pH. The addition of lime is used to help to increase the pH in soil and can help increase the pH in Ultisol as well. Clay soil is known to retain nutrients very well because its negative charge helps to attract cations. As a result, Ultisol does not often require the high amounts of fertilizer additions other types of soils often do. However, this retention of nutrients coincides with a lack of water filtration that may subject plants to highly saturated soil. Possible solutions Generally, gardeners aim to have 45% mineral, 5% organic matter and 50% pore space in their soil. The composition of Ultisol in North Carolina, for reference, is approximately 16% pore space, 2% organic matter and 82% mineral. The use of mulch is widespread in the Piedmont region of the United States as a solution to the high temperatures and saturation of the soil. The addition of mulch helps to make the soil more porous. Adding manure and/or compost can help to boost the amount of organic material present in the soil which in turn helps to add essential nutrients. Specifically, the addition of a 2- to 3-inch layer of compost and/or manure should be mixed into the soil to approximately match the depth of a shovel. The addition of organic material also helps to improve the drainage, while decreasing the overall weight of the soil. However, microorganisms in the soil consume the same nutrients that plants use to grow so certain nutrients will remain unavailable to plants until the microorganisms completely break down the organic material and release nutrients. Living organisms within the soil use, and subsequently convert,