period "magic, astrology, and occult sciences... were regarded as advanced sciences... to reject them, the Jews and their leaders would have had to ignore the most sophisticated technological attainments of contemporary civilization." Does astrology apply to Israel? Some rabbis held that the stars generally do control the fate of people and nations, but Abraham and his descendants were elevated by their covenant with God, and thus achieve an elevated level of free will. In the Talmud, two rabbis (R. Yohanan and Rav) held that "there is no mazal (literally "constellation") for Israel, but only for the nations", while one held the contrary, that astrology does apply to Israel. It is said that Abraham predicted via astrological tablets that he would have no second son, but God said to him, "Away with your astrology; for Israel there is no mazal!" The birth of his second son, the patriarch Isaac, then disproves the idea that astrology applies to Israel. Genesis Rabbah states that Abraham was not an astrologer, but rather a prophet, inasmuch as only those beneath the stars could be subject to their influence; but that Abraham was above them. Is it permitted for Jews to practice astrology? Samuel of Nehardea is the only sage in the Talmud who seriously studied astrology, yet he held that it was not compatible with Judaism. Quoting Deuteronomy 30:12, "The Law is not in the Heavens", he is reputed to have taught that "Torah cannot go together with the art that studies the heavens". Similarly, Jose of Hutzal prohibited consulting an astrologer: "We are not permitted to appeal to the Chaldeans, for it is written (), 'You shall be perfect with the Lord your God'". Several sources record that Rabbi Akiva prohibited the practice of astrology. The biblical Patriarch Abraham is said to have known astrology, with many people congregated before him to seek advice. This may indicate a more positive attitude towards the practice of astrology. In the medieval era Many rabbis in the Geonic era (after the close of the Talmud, early medieval period) discussed the varying Talmudic and midrashic views on astrology. One responsum takes a middle view: Otzar HaGeonim 113, concludes that astrology has some reality, in that the stars give a person certain inclinations; however each person has the ability to overcome their own inclinations, and thus maintains free will. Astrology was practised by some Jews throughout the Middle Ages,