horizontal gene transfer and is mediated through cell-cell conjugation. Bacterial resistance to bacteriophages Phage-resistant bacteria variants have been observed in human studies. As for antibiotics, horizontal transfer of phage resistance can be acquired by plasmid acquisition. Antifungal resistance Yeasts such as Candida species can become resistant under long-term treatment with azole preparations, requiring treatment with a different drug class. Lomentospora prolificans infections are often fatal because of their resistance to multiple antifungal agents. Antiviral resistance HIV is the prime example of MDR against antivirals, as it mutates rapidly under monotherapy. Influenza virus has become increasingly MDR; first to amantadines, then to neuraminidase inhibitors such as oseltamivir, (2008-2009: 98.5% of Influenza A tested resistant), also more commonly in people with weak immune systems. Cytomegalovirus can become resistant to ganciclovir and foscarnet under treatment, especially in immunosuppressed patients. Herpes simplex virus rarely becomes resistant to acyclovir preparations, mostly in the form of cross-resistance to famciclovir and valacyclovir, usually in immunosuppressed patients. Antiparasitic resistance The prime example for MDR against antiparasitic drugs is malaria. Plasmodium vivax has become chloroquine and sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine resistant a few decades ago, and as of 2012 artemisinin-resistant Plasmodium falciparum has emerged in western Cambodia and western Thailand. Toxoplasma gondii can also become resistant to artemisinin, as well as atovaquone and sulfadiazine, but is not usually MDR Antihelminthic resistance is mainly reported in the veterinary literature, for example in connection with the practice of livestock drenching and has been recent focus of FDA regulation. Preventing the emergence of antimicrobial resistance To limit the development of antimicrobial resistance, it has been suggested to: Use the appropriate antimicrobial for an infection; e.g. no antibiotics for viral infections Identify the causative organism whenever possible Select an antimicrobial which targets the specific organism, rather than relying on a broad-spectrum antimicrobial Complete an appropriate duration of antimicrobial treatment (not too short and not too long) Use the correct dose for eradication; subtherapeutic dosing is associated with resistance, as demonstrated in food animals. More thorough education of and by prescribers on their actions' implications globally. The medical community relies on education of its prescribers, and self-regulation in the form of appeals to voluntary antimicrobial stewardship, which at hospitals may take the form of an antimicrobial stewardship program. It has been argued that depending on the cultural context government can aid in educating the public on the importance of restrictive use of antibiotics for human clinical use,