no diphthongal sounds. Grammar Basic word order Pukapukan uses the two distinctive word orders of verb-subject-object and Verb-Object-Subject, although it is clear that VSO is used more commonly. Adjectives always follow their nouns in Pukapukan. Waka- is often used as a causative prefix in Austronesian languages, but in Pukapukan it has various functionalities. Due to Rarotongan influence ‘waka-’ is shortened to ‘aka-’, whereas ‘waka-’ is seen to be more formal (Teingoa 1993). Nouns prefixed by waka- become verbs with similar meanings: au, peace; waka-au, to make peace lā, sun; waka-lā, to put in the sun to dry ela; wedge; wakaela, to wedge Adjectives prefixed by waka become transitive verbs: yako, straight; waka-yako, to straighten kokoi, sharp; waka-kokoi, to sharpen Some verbs prefixed by waka- have specialized meanings that become somewhat difficult to predict from the base meaning. yā, sacred; waka-yā, to observe as sacred pono, to be sure; waka-pono, to decide to finalize Reduplication Like many other Polynesian languages, Pukapukan uses a lot of full and partial reduplication, some times to emphasize a word or to give it new meaning. kale, wave/surf; kale-le, undertow of the sea (waves coming in and others receding) kapa, to clap hands in rhythm; kapa-kapa, to flutter Numerals tayi “one” lua “two” tolu “three” wa “four” lima “five” ono “six” witu “seven” valu “eight” iva “nine” katoa/laungaulu “ten” Pukapukan uses two different counting systems in the language; the ‘one unit’ and the ‘two unit’. Numeral classifiers are also used as prefixes for numbers over ten and different objects. The ‘one unit’ uses its word for ten ‘laungaulu’ and adds the ‘one unit’ number (Teingoa 1993). 18 – laungaulu ma valu (ten and eight) For numbers above nineteen the single unit numbers are used. 30 – lau tolu (two three) 40 – lau wa (two four) The ‘two unit’ is derived from the ‘one unit’. Demonstratives and Spatial Deictics Different form classes Demonstrative pronouns Much like other Oceanic languages, Pukapukan has a three-way distinction of positional demonstrative particles that relate to the position of the speaker and addressee. In Pukapukan, these include nei ‘near to the speaker,’ nā ‘near to addressee and lā ‘away from both the speaker and addressee.’ Pukapukan also has the demonstrative particle ia meaning ‘aforementioned.’ These demonstrative particles form compounds with the singular articles te and e and with the preposition ki ‘to.’ The definite demonstrative pronouns are formed by adding the