religion: Discursive-scriptural: involving the composition, preaching, and recitation of texts (classics, Taoist scriptures and morality books); Personal cultivation mode, involving a long-term cultivation and transformation of oneself with the goal of becoming a xian (immortal), zhenren ("true person"), or shengren (wise), through the practice of different "technologies of the self" (qigong , Taoist inner and outer alchemy, charitable acts for merit, memorisation and recitation of texts); Liturgical: involving elaborate ritual procedures conducted by specialists of rites (Taoist rites, Confucian rites, Nuo rites, fengshui ); Immediate practical: aiming at quick efficacious (ling ) results through simple ritual and magical techniques (divination, talismans, divine medicine, consulting media and shamans); Relational: emphasising the devotional relationship between men and deities and among men themselves (organising elaborate sacrifices, making vows, organising temple festivals, pilgrimages, processions, and religious communities) in "social comings and goings" (laiwang ) and "interconnectedness" (guanxi ). Generally speaking, the Chinese believe that spiritual and material well-being ensues from the harmony of humanity and gods in their participation in the same cosmic power, and also believe that by taking the right path and practice anybody is able to reach the absolute reality. Religious practice is therefore regarded as the bridge to link the human world to the spiritual source, maintaining the harmony of the micro and macrocosmos, protecting the individual and the world from disruption. In this sense, the Chinese view of human life is not deterministic, but one is a master of his own life and can choose to collaborate with the deities for a harmonious world. Chinese culture being a holistic system, in which every aspect is a part of a whole, Chinese folk religious practice is often intermingled with political, educational and economic concerns. A gathering or event may be encompassed with all of these aspects; in general, the commitment (belief) and the process or rite (practice) together form the internal and external dimensions of Chinese religious life. In village communities, religious services are often organised and led by local people themselves. Leaders are usually selected among male heads of families or lineages, or village heads. A simple form of individual practice is to show respect for the gods (jing shen ) through jingxiang (incense offering), and the exchange of vows (huan yuan ). Sacrifice can consist of incense, oil, and candles, as well as money. Religious devotion may also express in the form of performance troupes (huahui), involving many