rectangular windings of niobium-titanium copper. Retrofits to natural gas powerplants. One was to be at the Enichem-Anic factor in Ravenna. In this plant, the combustion gases from the MHD would pass to the boiler. The other was a 230MW (thermal) installation for a power station in Brindisi, that would pass steam to the main power plant. Chinese development A joint U.S.-China national programme ended in 1992 by retrofitting the coal-fired No. 3 plant in Asbach. A further eleven-year program was approved in March 1994. This established centres of research in: The Institute of Electrical Engineering in the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, concerned with MHD generator design. The Shanghai Power Research Institute, concerned with overall system and superconducting magnet research. The Thermoenergy Research Engineering Institute at the Nanjing's Southeast University, concerned with later developments. The 1994 study proposed a 10W (electrical, 108MW thermal) generator with the MHD and bottoming cycle plants connected by steam piping, so either could operate independently. Russian developments In 1971 the natural-gas fired U-25 plant was completed near Moscow, with a designed capacity of 25 megawatts. By 1974 it delivered 6 megawatts of power. By 1994, Russia had developed and operated the coal-operated facility U-25, at the High-Temperature Institute of the Russian Academy of Science in Moscow. U-25's bottoming plant was actually operated under contract with the Moscow utility, and fed power into Moscow's grid. There was substantial interest in Russia in developing a coal-powered disc generator. In 1986 the first industrial power plant with MHD generator was built, but in 1989 the project was cancelled before MHD launch and this power plant later joined to Ryazan Power Station as a 7th unit with ordinary construction. See also Computational magnetohydrodynamics Electrohydrodynamics Electromagnetic pump Ferrofluid List of plasma (physics) articles Magnetic flow meter Magnetohydrodynamic turbulence MHD sensor Plasma stability Shocks and discontinuities (magnetohydrodynamics) References Further reading Hugo K. Messerle, Magnetohydrodynamic Power Generation, 1994, John Wiley, Chichester, Part of the UNESCO Energy Engineering Series (This is the source of the historical and generator design information). Shioda, S. "Results of Feasibility Studies on Closed-Cycle MHD Power Plants", Proc. Plasma Tech. Conf., 1991, Sydney, Australia, pp. 189–200. R.J. Rosa, Magnetohydrodynamic Energy Conversion, 1987, Hemisphere Publishing, Washington, D.C. G.J. Womac, MHD Power Generation, 1969, Chapman and Hall, London. External links MHD generator Research at the University of Tennessee Space Institute (archive) - 2004 Model of an MHD-generator at the Institute of