singular specific article te-. For example, when adding te-, nei becomes tēnei ‘this (by me),’ nā becomes tēnā ‘that (by you),’ lā becomes tēlā ‘that (over there)’ and ia becomes teia ‘this (being demonstrated or mentioned previously).’ These demonstrative pronouns only occur as subjects of nominal predicates and as represented below can be equated with personal pronouns (example 1), pronouns (examples 2–3) or definite common noun phrases (examples 4–5). The demonstrative subject may separate the head from the possessive phase when the nominal predicate is a complex phrase whose head is modified by a postposed possessive phrase, as shown in example 6 below. The nonspecific article e and the positional demonstrative particles can also be combined to form indefinite demonstrative pronouns. These include ēnāi ‘this (by me),’ ēnā ‘that (by you),’ ēlā ‘that (over there)’ and eia ‘here with (being demonstrated).’ These demonstrative pronouns constitute the nucleus of indefinite nominal predicates and are normally followed by their subjects as shown in examples 7–10 below. The demonstrative particles can also form compounds with the preposition ki- ‘to.’ These compounds can be used as a substitute (pro-form) for locational nouns. These type of demonstrative pronouns in Pukapukan include, kinea ‘to here,’ kinā ‘to there, by you,’ kilā ‘to over there’ and kiai ‘to there,’ in which kiai is an anaphoric form. These demonstrative pronouns occur as the head of a locative predicate as demonstrated in examples 11–13 below. The compound kiai is formed by joining the case marker ki (meaning ‘to’) to the anaphoric pronoun ai. Kiai may replace a personal pronoun or a proper locational noun. This can be seen in example 13 in which the locational noun wale ‘home’ is replaced with kiai in the following constituent. These forms can also be used to substitute a noun phrase which has been marked for case by a preposition. For example: Demonstrative modifiers Pukapukan has several classes of modifiers. In particular, the directional and positional modifiers help indicate spatial and temporal directions and positions from the speaker and/or addressee. According to Clark (1976), cognates of the directional particles of Pukapukan are found in all Polynesian languages. The directional particles tend to modify verbs more frequently than nouns and are often associated with verbs that denote movement, as well as verbs that denote speech, perception, cognition and social interaction. Mai indicates real or implied movement in the direction of the speaker, for example: