above. When denoting temporal location, demonstrative predicates may do this specifically (as in example 26) or indirectly (as in example 27). In narratives, demonstrative predicates may be used to set the scene for an imminent event, such as: They may also function as an affirmation seeker or used to describe or explain an aside in real time to listeners and readers. In particular, eia can be used to set apart narrative clauses from backgrounding comments and is also used as a marker which concludes a narrative. Lastly, demonstrative predicates do not allow topicalisation of their subjects. Demonstrative adverbs Pukapukan has four demonstrative adverbs. These include pēnei ‘like this,’ pēnā ‘like that [by you],’ pēlā ‘like that [over there]’ and peia ‘like so [being demonstrated]’ can modify a predicate, function as verbs, denote modality, introduce direct or indirect speech or stand as a pro-form for a prepositional phrase. For example, peia functions as a verb meaning ‘carry on in like manner’ to the action or state described in a previous clause as seen in example 34 below. Deictic distinctions This demonstrative paradigm below shows the four deictic patterns found in Pukapukan. Pattern 1 generally corresponds to ‘near speaker, or deictic centre.’ For example: Pattern 2 generally corresponds to ‘near the addressee.’ Pattern 3 generally corresponds to ‘away from both speaker and addressee.’ Pattern 4 generally corresponds to ‘aforementioned or being demonstrated.’ Vocabulary Indigenous vocabulary kāvatavata “noise made by snapping tongue” Pōiva “name of a deified ancestor” pulu “the calf of the leg” Yāmatangi “prayer for a fair wind” Loanwords Pukapukan is not closely related to other Cook Islands languages but it does show substantial borrowing from Eastern Polynesian languages, such as Rarotongan. In fact, because there is no ‘r’ in Pukapukan ‘l’ takes its place in Rarotongan borrowings (Teingoa 1993). Homophones Pukapukan uses many homophones in its vocabulary usually to give names to new words or items with similar origin meanings (Beaglehole 1906–1965). kapa v. to clap hands in rhythm v. to cry loudly n. corner ata n. an emotional shock n. shadow n. Dawn v. to change color Verbal prefix: good at, skilled in lulu v. to tie up n. Bundle, village, group, team n. Name of a taro preparation n. Name of a bird Endangerment Materials There is a limited list when it comes to the language of Pukapukan. Although, today speakers of the language, locals of Pukapuka, and