lichens. Tapia forest is found on the drier western slopes, which are in the rain shadow of the central uplands, between 600 and 1,600 meters elevation. Tapia (Uapaca bojeri) is a characteristic canopy tree, together with Leptolaena pauciflora, L. bojerana, and Sarcolaena oblongifolia. The trees have gnarled branches and small leaves, forming a mostly closed canopy 10 to 12 meters high which provides light shade on the forest floor. Other trees include Asteropeia densiflora, Agarista salicifolia, Weinmannia spp., Dodonaea madagascariensis, Faurea forficuliflora, Brachylaena microphylla, Dicoma incana, Baronia taratana, Abrahamia buxifolia, Neocussonia bojeri, Alberta spp., and Enterospermum spp. The understory is typically shrubs, including species of Erica, Vaccinium, Asteraceae (Senecio, Vernonia, Psiadia, Conyza, and Helichrysum), Rubiaceae, and Leguminosae. Tapia is fire-resistant, and where fires have been frequently set they form open woodlands or savannas with a grassy understory. Rupicolous shrubland grows on rock outcrops and sandstone and granite inselbergs. Vegetation grows in crevices and on thin mats of coarse soil, and is often sparse and rarely more than two meters high. Common plants include the sedge Coleochloa setifera, the shrub Myrothamnus moschata, and species of Euphorbia. The shrublands are home to many endemic species including succulents in the genera Aloe, Kalanchoe, and Pachypodium. Revivescent plants, which periodically dry out and then revive when rains return, include the moss-like Selaginella echinata and the ferns Pellaea, Actiniopteris, and Notholaena. Sambirano forests. The Sambirano region, also known as the Sambirano Domain, is a coastal region of northwestern Madagascar, lying west of the Tsaratanana and Manongarivo massifs. The region has higher rainfall than the rest of the west coast, and is home to distinctive forests. The Sambirano forests are predominantly evergreen, with some deciduous species characteristic of the dry forests to the north and south, which form a mature canopy 25 to 30 meters high. The Sambirano forests are home to several endemic species of plants and animals. Lowland primary forest has been reduced to small patches. Secondary grasslands cover broad areas of the highlands. They are typically species–poor. 'Tanety' grasslands are low, sparse grasslands between 1,200 and 1,500 meters elevation, where Aristida rufescens is the characteristic species. 'Tampoketsa' grasslands cover the plateaus north and northeast of Antananarivo, between 1,600 and 1,900 meters elevation. The Madagascar endemic grass Loudetia simplex subsp. stipoides is predominant, interspersed with small patches of remnant forest. Low grasslands have also replaced most of the former tapia forests on the western