a third point not occupied by the speaker gi- indicates that the action moves towards a third point and communicates the English prepositions of to, for or concerning gla- indicates that the action reverts towards the subject and is used to form possessive constructions Instrumental prefixes There are nine separate prefixes that indicate instrumentality, all of which change passive verbs into active. wa- by pushing with the hand gi- by pushing or striking with a held object ru-/ri- by hand na- by means of the feet or a machine ra- by means of the mouth or teeth bo- by means of blow or blast ba- by cutting da- because of heating or freezing Causative suffix The causative, wherein the subject causes or makes something else to do or be something, is expressed via the suffix -hi. Tense "Tense" in Chiwere can be divided into present/past and future. Present and past tenses are unmarked in the language, and are distinguished by actual statements of time using words like "yesterday" or "today." The future tense is indicated with the particle hnye, which follows the verb. Personal pronouns Chiwere is a pro-drop language; once the subject of the sentence has been established, it can be omitted. First Person: mi'e (sing.), hi'e (inc.) Second Person: ri'e Third Person: alé Negation Statements are negated with the particle skunyi, which follows the verb. Commands Commands are formed using the simple verb stem plus a gender-specific particle – le for male speakers and lé for female speakers. Classes The Otoe-Missouria Tribe of Oklahoma's Otoe Language Program teaches weekly classes in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, and Red Rock, Oklahoma. See also Truman Washington Dailey (Otoe-Missoura, 1898–1996), the last fully fluent native speaker Notes References GoodTracks, Jimm G. (2010). Iowa, Otoe-Missouria Language Dictionary: English / Báxoje-Jiwére-Ñútˀačhi ~ Maʔúŋke. (Revised Edition). Center for the Study of the Languages of the Plains and Southwest. GoodTracks, Jimm G. (2007). Iowa, Otoe-Missouria Language Dictionary: English / Báxoje-Jiwére-Ñútˀačhi ~ Maʔúŋke. (Revised Edition). Center for the Study of the Languages of the Plains and Southwest. GoodTracks, Jimm G. (2002). Ioway-Otoe Verb Composition: Elements of the Verb and Conjugations. (Revised Edition). Ioway Cultural Institute. Whitman, William. (1947). "Descriptive Grammar of Ioway-Oto." International Journal of American Linguistics, 13 (4): 233-248. Wistrand-Robinson, Lila, et al. (1977). Jiwele-Baxoje Wan'shige Ukenye Ich'e Otoe-Iowa Indian Language – Book I. Jiwele Baxoje Language Project. External links Ioway-Otoe-Missouria Language Website Ioway-Otoe Verb Composition Ioway