in their child-raising abilities. Indeed, most Japanese mothers today grew up in smaller families with only one or two children. Their mothers provided them with everything they needed and gave them little to no responsibilities involving their siblings. Thus, that generation of children has grown up to become mothers who have no idea how to raise their children. In addition, in contemporary Japan there are mothers who completely devote themselves to child-raising. Another subtype, described by Nishioka Rice, is the kosodate mama (), who adds psychosociological elements into child-raising. In addition to providing for her a good education, she develops an emotional and psychological relationship with her children. One way to do this is through "skinship"—being in constant close physical contact with her children. This could, for example, involve carrying her child on her back wherever she goes or bathing with her children every night. Through skinship, ittaikan () is achieved, a "one-ness and balanced, positively valenced dependency" between mother and child. Societal views In Japan, a mother who works is commonly seen as selfish in a society where child-raising is linked directly with the physical closeness between mother and child. This emphasis can be a cause of the development of a kyōiku mama who always worries about her children's education success. This produces children that society views as lacking self-reliance, antisocial, and selfish. When compared to American mothers, Japanese mothers have a stronger belief in effort as opposed to innate ability. Japanese children see their efforts as necessary to fulfill a social obligation to family, peers, and community. Children are forced to focus on their effort, seeing it as the cause of success. According to society, if a child does not succeed, they were not trying hard enough. This is unrelated to the child's grades; children always need to put forth more effort. Mothers pressure children because they are held strongly accountable for their children's actions. It is very hard to find daycare in some parts of Japan, and it is socially looked down upon if a mother sends her child to one. The mother is seen as insufficient, not having the skills to raise a child on her own, or selfish, giving her child over to a caretaker while she pursues her own separate goals. The term kyōiku mama became used in other similar contexts. For example, the former Ministry of International Trade and Industry was dubbed kyōiku