forms of the gastraphetes to a certain Zopyros. This Zopyros was probably a Pythagorean engineer from southern Italy. He may have designed his stand-mounted bow-machines on the occasion of the sieges of Cumae and Miletus between 421 BC and 401 BC, thus marking the date by which the archetypical gastraphetes must have already been known. Other ancient crossbows Besides the gastraphetes, the ancient world knew a variety of mechanical hand-held weapons similar to the later medieval crossbow. The exact terminology is a subject of continuing scholarly debate. Greek and Roman authors like Vegetius (fl. 4th century AD) note repeatedly the use of arrow firing weapons such as arcuballista and manuballista respectively cheiroballistra. While most scholars agree that one or more of these terms refer to handheld mechanical weapons, there is disagreement about whether these were flexion bows or torsion powered like the recent Xanten find. The Roman commander Arrian (c. 86 – after 146 AD) records in his Tactica Roman cavalry training for firing some mechanical handheld weapon from horseback. Sculptural reliefs from Roman Gaul depict the use of crossbows in hunting scenes. Dating to the 2nd century AD, the specimens are remarkably similar to the later medieval crossbow, including the typical nut lock. From their reflexible shape they were composite bows. References Sources Further reading Diels, H.; Schramm, E. (eds.): "Herons 'Belopoiika'", (Abhandlungen der preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Philosoph.-hist. Kl. 2.) Berlin: Reimer, 1918, Chapter 7 Schellenberg, H. M.: "Anmerkungen zu Heron von Alexandria und seinem Werk über den Geschützbau", in: Schellenberg, H.M. / Hirschmann, V. E./ Krieckhaus, A. (eds.): "A Roman Miscellany. Essays in Honour of Anthony R. Birley on his Seventieth Birthday", Gdansk 2008, pp. 92–130 External links Ancient Greek Artillery Technology Reconstructions and Plans of Greek and Roman Artillery Crossbows Ancient Greek military terminology Ancient Greek artillery