the privilege of self-taxation so that convocation rather than Parliament voted the tenths imposed on its property. In some instances, far heavier charges (e.g. one third in 1296) were decreed by the king, despite which such taxation became less productive during the 14th century. However, by the close of the reign of Richard II, the results of the transition from feudalism to a parliamentary constitution were almost complete. As regards finance, the most important of these were: The disappearance or reduction of unimportant feudal dues. The fact that this change occurred at a relatively early date is of special significance for English development. The royal demesne, though it had not yet suffered the losses that later grants were to inflict, had also lost some of its value. In compensation, direct taxation on property became a ready means of supplying the growing requirements of the administration, the mode of levy being reduced to a well-recognized form, unsatisfactory experiments such as the poll tax having been withdrawn. The growth of import and export duties through the old and new customs plus subsidies furnished a large part of the requisite funds. In fact, in a little over three hundred years and without violence, the constituent parts of public income had been completely altered in relative value and organization. Further forms of tax raising The Lancastrian era, extending over two-thirds of the 15th century (1399–1471), is noticeable for introducing new forms of direct taxation. The standard tax, the fifteenth and tenth, was failing to meet changing conditions in that, as towns decayed, further allowances had to be given amounting to over 15% (£6,000), which, with other deductions, lowered the yield from fifteenths and tenths to £31,000. To supplement this, a 5% land tax affecting only large land owners was introduced in 1404, a lower rate of 1% being applied to the less wealthy in 1411. A house tax made its appearance in 1428 while taxes on knights' fees and other freeholds were also tried. In 1435 and 1450, a graduated income tax was employed. The minimum rate, 2%, applied to incomes under £100 (or under £20 in the tax of 1450) rising to 10% on higher incomes, thus evidencing the need for greater revenue. At this time, such methods showed a disposition to adopt foreign models, particularly those of France and Italy. As to indirect taxation, receipts at first seemed to decline so that