with poor kidney function, others techniques have been developed, which do not require any injection. These methods are based on the differences of T1, T2 and chemical shift of the different tissues of the voxel. A notable non-enhanced method for flow-independent angiography is balanced steady-state free precession (bSSFP) imaging which naturally produces high signal from arteries and veins. 2D and 3D acquisitions For the acquisition of the images two different approaches exist. In general, 2D and 3D images can be acquired. If 3D data is acquired, cross sections at arbitrary view angles can be calculated. Three-dimensional data can also be generated by combining 2D data from different slices, but this approach results in lower quality images at view angles different from the original data acquisition. Furthermore, the 3D data can not only be used to create cross sectional images, but also projections can be calculated from the data. Three-dimensional data acquisition might also be helpful when dealing with complex vessel geometries where blood is flowing in all spatial directions (unfortunately, this case also requires three different flow encodings, one in each spatial direction). Both PC-MRA and TOF-MRA have advantages and disadvantages. PC-MRA has fewer difficulties with slow flow than TOF-MRA and also allows quantitative measurements of flow. PC-MRA shows low sensitivity when imaging pulsating and non-uniform flow. In general, slow blood flow is a major challenge in flow dependent MRA. It causes the differences between the blood signal and the static tissue signal to be small. This either applies to PC-MRA where the phase difference between blood and static tissue is reduced compared to faster flow and to TOF-MRA where the transverse blood magnetization and thus the blood signal are reduced. Contrast agents may be used to increase blood signal – this is especially important for very small vessels and vessels with very small flow velocities that normally show accordingly weak signal. Unfortunately, the use of gadolinium-based contrast media can be dangerous if patients suffer from poor renal function. To avoid these complications as well as eliminate the costs of contrast media, non-enhanced methods have been researched recently. Non-enhanced techniques in development Flow-independent NEMRA methods are not based on flow, but exploit differences in T1, T2 and chemical shift to distinguish blood from static tissue. Gated subtraction fast spin-echo: An imaging technique that subtracts two fast spin echo sequences acquired at systole and diastole. Arteriography is achieved by subtracting the