the purpose of the gift was ascertained: Zhang Zongchang's empty basket implied he was a man willing to shoulder whatever heavy responsibilities the warlord entrusted him with. He was subsequently rewarded with a command position in his army, though only after proving himself in battle did Zhang Zongchang visit his superior in person. Zhang Zongchang proved to be one of the more capable warlord generals, making effective use of armored trains. Aided by his knowledge of the Russian language, he recruited thousands of White Russian refugees from the Russian Civil War; he organised the men into specialised units, including a unit of Cossack bodyguards, and crews for his armored trains. He even outfitted some White Russians with pseudo-Tsarist uniforms and regalia. He was also one of the first Chinese generals to incorporate women into the military on a large scale, including using a regiment of nurses consisting entirely of White Russian women. They trained their Chinese counterparts, resulting in greater efficiency in taking care of Zhang's wounded troops, a significant boost for morale and combat capability. He also organized his own small air force, including at least one Caudron C.59 bomber. Rise to prominence and rule of Shandong In 1924, he took part in the Second Zhili–Fengtian War, capturing the crucial Lengkouguan Pass after the Zhili clique's defenses were thrown into chaos due to Feng Yuxiang's betrayal. This boosted Zhang's reputation within the Fengtian clique. He later helped partition Shanghai between the opposing forces. In April 1925 he conquered Shanghai proper and then seized Nanjing, both for the glory of Zhang Zuolin's Fengtian clique. From then on, Zhang was very active in Shanghai for both work and pleasure. He often caroused in the city with Zhang Zuolin's son, Gen. Zhang Xueliang. Both men enjoyed opium, for which Shanghai was a key site in the smuggling trade, and the Fengtian economy became increasingly reliant on the drug. Zhang became closely connected to Shanghai's criminal gangs and the drug trade. Later in 1925, Zhang and his forces were ousted from Shanghai. He was subsequently appointed military governor of Shandong, which he ruled as warlord until May 1928. Zhang's rule of Shandong was notoriously poor, dominated by graft and mismanagement. He implemented excessive taxes, printed so much provincial currency that it became worthless, and starved public institutions of funds. By 1927, the provincial educational system had collapsed and the local economy was in