reconstitution. An important philosophical approach to technology has been taken by Bernard Stiegler, whose work has been influenced by other philosophers and historians of technology including Gilbert Simondon and André Leroi-Gourhan. In the Schumpeterian and Neo-Schumpeterian theories technologies are critical factors of economic growth (Carlota Perez). Analytical theories There are theories of technological change and innovation which are not defined or claimed by a proponent, but are used by authors in describing existing literature, in contrast to their own or as a review of the field. For example, Markus and Robey (1988) propose a general technology theory consisting of the causal structures of agency (technological, organizational, imperative, emergent), its structure (variance, process), and the level (micro, macro) of analysis. Orlikowski (1992) notes that previous conceptualizations of technology typically differ over scope (is technology more than hardware?) and role (is it an external objective force, the interpreted human action, or an impact moderated by humans?) and identifies three models: The technological imperative: focuses on organizational characteristics which can be measured and permits some level of contingency Strategic choices: focuses on how technology is influenced by the context and strategies of decision-makers and users Technology as maker of structural changes:: views technology as a social object DeSanctis and Poole (1994) similarly write of three views of technology's effects: Decision-making: the view of engineers associated with positivist, rational, systems rationalization, and deterministic approaches Institutional school: technology is an opportunity for change, focuses on social evolution, social construction of meaning, interaction and historical processes, interpretive flexibility, and an interplay between technology and power An integrated perspective (social technology): soft-line determinism, with joint social and technological optimization, structural symbolic interaction theory Bimber (1998) addresses the determinacy of technology effects by distinguishing between the: Normative: an autonomous approach where technology is an important influence on history only where societies attached cultural and political meaning to it (e.g., the industrialization of society) Nomological: a naturalistic approach wherein an inevitable technological order arises based on laws of nature (e.g., steam mill had to follow the hand mill). Unintended consequences: a fuzzy approach that is demonstrative that technology is contingent (e.g., a car is faster than a horse, but unbeknownst to its original creators become a significant source of pollution) References Bibliography Bentley, Raymond (2019). Technological Change In The German Democratic Republic, Routledge Denis, A. and Valacich, J. (1999). Rethinking media richness: towards a theory of media synchronicity. Proceedings