to reconstruct images equivalent to those of any conventional detector geometry, and can be used to map fields in the sample at high spatial resolution, including information about strain and electric fields. The technique can also be used to perform ptychography. Spectroscopy in STEM Electron energy loss spectroscopy As the electron beam passes through the sample, some electrons in the beam lose energy via inelastic scattering interactions with electrons in the sample. In electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS), the energy lost by the electrons in the beam is measured using an electron spectrometer, allowing features such as plasmons, and elemental ionization edges to be identified. Energy resolution in EELS is sufficient to allow the fine structure of ionization edges to be observed, which means that EELS can be used for chemical mapping, as well as elemental mapping. In STEM, EELS can be used to spectroscopically map a sample at atomic resolution. Recently developed monochromators can achieve an energy resolution of ~10 meV in EELS, allowing vibrational spectra to be acquired in STEM. Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy In energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) or (EDXS), which is also referred to in literature as X-ray energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) or (XEDS), an X-ray spectrometer is used to detect the characteristic X-rays that are emitted by atoms in the sample as they are ionized by electron in the beam. In STEM, EDX is typically used for compositional analysis and elemental mapping of samples. Typical X-ray detectors for electron microscopes cover only a small solid angle, which makes X-ray detection relatively inefficient since X-rays are emitted from the sample in every direction. However, detectors covering large solid angles have been recently developed, and atomic resolution X-ray mapping has even been achieved. Convergent-beam electron diffraction Convergent-beam electron diffraction (CBED) is a STEM technique that provides information about crystal structure at a specific point in a sample. In CBED, the width of the area a diffraction pattern is acquired from is equal to the size of the probe used, which can be smaller than 1 Å in an aberration-corrected STEM (see above). CBED differs from conventional electron diffraction in that CBED patterns consist of diffraction disks, rather than spots. The width of CBED disks is determined by the convergence angle of the electron beam. Other features, such as Kikuchi lines are often visible in CBED patterns. CBED can be used to determine the point and space groups of