to the error signal e by a gain factor G (that is, Vcursor = G*e). Thus, when the perceptual signal p is smaller than the reference signal r, the error signal e has a positive sign, and from it the model computes an upward velocity of the cursor that is proportional to the error. The next position of the cursor Cnew is the current position Cold plus the velocity Vcursor times the duration dt of one iteration of the program. By simple algebra, we substitute G*e (as given above) for Vcursor, yielding a third equation: 3. Cnew = Cold + G*e*dt These three simple equations or program steps constitute the simplest form of the model for the tracking task. When these three simultaneous equations are evaluated over and over with similarly distributed random disturbances d of the target position that the human participant experienced, the output positions and velocities of the cursor duplicate the participant's actions in the tracking task above within 4.0% of their peak-to-peak range, in great detail. This simple model can be refined with a damping factor d which reduces the discrepancy between the model and the human participant to 3.6% when the disturbance d is set to maximum difficulty. 3'. Cnew = Cold + [(G*e)–(d*Cold)]*dt Detailed discussion of this model in (Powers 2008) includes both source and executable code, with which the reader can verify how well this simple program simulates real behavior. No consideration is needed of possible nonlinearities such as the Weber-Fechner law, potential noise in the system, continuously varying angles at the joints, and many other factors that could afflict performance if this were a simple linear model. No inverse kinematics or predictive calculations are required. The model simply reduces the discrepancy between input p and reference r continuously as it arises in real time, and that is all that is required—as predicted by the theory. Distinctions from engineering control theory In the artificial systems that are specified by engineering control theory, the reference signal is considered to be an external input to the 'plant'. In engineering control theory, the reference signal or set point is public; in PCT, it is not, but rather must be deduced from the results of the test for controlled variables, as described above in the methodology section. This is because in living systems a reference signal is not an externally accessible input, but instead originates within the