support of a member during conflicts with conspecifics. The display of these behaviours between two male chimpanzees or an entire group suggest that these individuals are highly affiliated with strong social bonds. The production of pant-hoots between members is also reflective upon this observation, in which individuals are more likely to engage in chorusing behaviours with their long-term affiliative social partners, as opposed to other neutral males in which they are not affiliated. However, male chimpanzees have been found to occasionally chorus with neutral males in situations where their preferred social partner is unavailable, forming short-term social bonds, and essentially displaying the three behaviours indicative of social bonding; grooming, support and non-vocal displays during days when they pant-hoot chorus with these neutral males. This illustrates how joint pant-hoot chorusing can facilitate the formation of social bonding activities between male chimpanzees. The establishment of this bond can be indicated to each member of the party as the joint chorus and response to the initial caller illustrates the commitment and attention that the correspondant has devoted to the caller, and subsequently, the formation of the social bond between them. The formation of social groups among male chimpanzees can be beneficial in both short-term and long-term scenarios. The formation of short-term social bonds between males in absence of their preferred social partner can serve as an alternate mechanism for coalition, providing temporary support and protection while separated from their long-term partners. In the formation of long-term bonds, members of a chimpanzee party will display their pant-hoot chorusing behaviour as an indication of their socially affiliative strength to third-party males, suggesting their support of one another, combined dominance and the overall strength of their territorial defence. Spatial communication Following the formation of social bonds and parties within chimpanzee populations, these social affiliations are thought to be maintained by the production of pant-hoot calls upon the spatial separation of the group, serving as a means of communication and contact between members. Each specific member in a party can be identified by their pant-hoot by other members of their social group and by other populations based on variation in the structure and dialectal differences of their call. Therefore, pant-hoots can be produced to indicate locational changes of specific members, with calls being produced before and after travelling, to announce their new relative spatial position to other members of their affiliative party. When members remain in close