Iran, Turkey, and Saudi Arabia; at the same time, he preferred to cast Kazakhstan as a bridge between the Muslim East and the Christian West. For example, he initially accepted only observer status in the Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO), all of whose member nations are predominantly Muslim. The president's first trip to the Muslim holy city of Mecca, which occurred in 1994, was part of an itinerary that also included a visit to Pope John Paul II in the Vatican. See also Religion in Kazakhstan Islam in Central Asia Islam in the Soviet Union Khoja Taza Jol Islam Further reading Bigozhin, Ulan. (2018). "Local Politics and Patronage of a Sacred Lineage Shrine in Kazakhstan." Central Asian Affairs 5(3): 233–252. https://doi.org/10.1163/22142290-00503003 Bigozhin, Ulan. (2019). "'Where is Our Honor?" Sports, Masculinity, and Authority in Kazakhstani Islamic Media." Central Asian Affairs 6(2-3): 189-205. https://doi.org/10.1163/22142290-00602006 Privratsky, Bruce (2001). Muslim Turkistan: Kazak Religion and Collective Memory. London: Curzon. Schwab, Wendell (2015). "Islam, Fun, and Social Capital in Kazakhstan." Central Asian Affairs 2(1): 51–70. https://doi.org/10.1163/22142290-00201004 Schwab, Wendell (2016). "Visual Culture and Islam in Kazakhstan: The Case of Asyl Arna’s Social Media." Central Asian Affairs 3(4): 301–329. https://doi.org/10.1163/22142290-00304001 Schwab, Wendell. (2019). "The Rhetoric of Islamic Debate in Kazakhstani Mass Media." Central Asian Affairs 6(2-3): 166–188). https://doi.org/10.1163/22142290-00602005 References Kazakhstan