given its solitary social structure, it selects its territory to ensure sufficient food supply. Defecation occurs in set locations. Life expectancies may be up to 20–25 years. Parapoxvirus is common, though rarely fatal; infection causes papular and nodular lesions. There have been epidemics of contagious pustular dermatitis. Bacteria such as E. coli and Lyme borreliosis are common, and Toxoplasma gondii has been reported. C. crispus is susceptible to numerous parasites, such as the nematode Trichuris discolor and the lungworm Protostrongylus shiozawai. Reproduction Capricornis crispus is socially monogamous. Females reach sexual maturity at 30 months. First breeding takes place at age 2.5–3 years; breeding occurs once a year, between September and January. In a courtship ritual resembling that of goats or gazelles, the male Japanese serow licks the female's mouth, strikes her on the hindlegs with his forelegs, and rubs her genitalia with his horns. Both sexes display Flehmen responses. Birth takes place between June and August after a gestation period of about 210–220 days. It takes about half an hour, and the female walks about during the birth. The single fawn is tall and reaches adult height in a year. The fawn stays with its mother for 1–2 years. It then moves gradually from its mother's range until it establishes its own. Young that do not disperse on their own may be chased away by the mother. Relationship with humans The earliest record of human contact with the serow is of a small number of prehistoric Jōmon period bones unearthed by archaeologists, primarily in mountainous regions. It is speculated the serow was hunted for its hide and for food. What is believed to be the earliest written record appears in the (720): the Emperor Tenmu (r. 672–686) sent the hides of a to senior statesmen; this likely refers to the serow, and recurs elsewhere in the Nihon Shoki. The 8th-century contains a waka poem by Kakinomoto no Hitomaro that mentions a group of shishi; a number of writers have concluded this animal is the serow, but others have pointed out the serow is normally solitary. Heian period (794–1185) documents record gifts of serow horns brought to the capital. Japan's earliest extant medical work, the (808), appears to record the use of serow horn and flesh for medicinal purposes. For centuries following the Heian period, mention of the serow becomes scarce. There is some belief that it was still hunted for