percent. Latané, et al., concluded that increasing the number of people in a group diminished the relative social pressure on each person: "If the individual inputs are not identifiable the person may work less hard. Thus if the person is dividing up the work to be performed or the amount of reward he expects to receive, he will work less hard in groups." Meta-analysis study and the Collective Effort Model (CEM) In a 1993 meta-analysis, Karau and Williams proposed the Collective Effort Model (CEM), which is used to generate predictions. The CEM integrates expectancy theories with theories of group-level social comparison and social identity to account for studies that examine individual effort in collective settings. From a psychological state, it proposes that Expectancy multiplied by Instrumentality multiplied by Valence of Outcome produces the resulting Motivational Force. Karau, et al., concluded that social loafing occurred because there was usually a stronger perceived contingency between individual effort and valued outcomes when working individually. When working collectively, other factors frequently determine performance, and valued outcomes are also divided among all group members. All individuals are assumed to try to maximize the expected utility of their actions. The CEM also acknowledges that some valued outcomes do not depend on performance. For example, exerting strong effort when working on intrinsically meaningful tasks or with highly respected team members may result in self-satisfaction or approval from the group, even if the high effort had little to no impact on tangible performance outcomes. Notable or novel findings by Karau and Williams following their implementation of the CEM include: The magnitude of social loafing is reduced for women and individuals originating from Eastern cultures. Individuals are more likely to loaf when their co-workers are expected to perform well. Individuals reduce social loafing when working with acquaintances and do not loaf at all when they work in highly valued groups. Dispersed versus collocated groups A 2005 study by Laku Chidambaram and Lai Lai Tung based their research model on Latané's social impact theory, and hypothesized that as group size and dispersion grew, the group's work would be affected in the following areas: Members would contribute less in both quantity and quality, final group output would be of lower quality, and a group's output would be affected both by individual factors and contextual factors. A sample of 240 undergraduate business students was randomly split into forty teams (half of the