and constrained by parochial national interests. Applying lessons from the tianxia system to a modern framework, Chinese academic Yan Xuetong argues that great powers seeking international respect must use "humane authority" instead of seeking to impose hegemony. Western calques The "all under the heaven" expression became the origin for the literary expressions denoting China in a number of Western languages, such as the Russian Podnebesnaya (, i.e. "Under the heaven"). The English term "Celestial Empire" is said to have been based on the title of Chinese emperors, tian zi (Son of Heaven). Other usage Modelled after the Chinese concept, the Singaporean historian Wang Gungwu coined the term "American Tianxia" in 2013 to refer to the contemporary world order led by the United States. See also Celestial Empire (Tian chao, "Heavenly dynasty") Chinese unification Chinese exceptionalism Four Seas Huaxia Heaven worship Hero (2002 film) — a 2002 film centered on the term with controversy on the translation of tianxia to All Under Heaven versus Our Land Little China (ideology) Panarchy Pax Sinica ("Chinese peace") Son of Heaven The Land of Fire Tian (Heaven) / Shangdi (God) Zhao Tingyang References Citations Sources Chinese culture Chinese words and phrases Heaven History of Imperial China Names of China World government Relationship between Heaven and Mankind