by statute, their adjudicators are usually appointed by government, and they focus on very particular and specialized areas of law. Because some subject matters (e.g., immigration) fall within federal jurisdiction while others (e.g., liquor licensing and workers' compensation) in provincial jurisdiction, some tribunals are created by federal law while others are created by provincial law. There are both federal and provincial tribunals for some subject matters such as unionized labour and human rights. Most importantly, from a lawyer's perspective, is the fact that the principle of does not apply to tribunals. In other words, a tribunal adjudicator could legally make a decision that differs from a past decision, on the same subject and issues, delivered by the highest court in the land. Because a tribunal is not bound by legal precedent, established by itself or by a reviewing court, a tribunal is not a court even though it performs an important adjudicative function and contributes to the development of law like a court would do. Although does not apply to tribunals, their adjudicators will likely nonetheless find a prior court decision on a similar subject to be highly persuasive and will likely follow the courts in order to ensure consistency in the law and to prevent the embarrassment of having their decisions overturned by the courts. The same is true for past decisions of the tribunal. Among the federal tribunals, there is a small group of tribunals whose decisions must be appealed directly to the Federal Court of Appeal rather than to the Federal Court Trial Division. These so-called "super tribunals" are listed in subsection 28(1) of the Federal Courts Act and some examples include the National Energy Board, Canadian International Trade Tribunal, the Competition Tribunal, the Canada Industrial Relations Board (i.e., federal labour board), the Copyright Board and the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC). Judicial independence In 1982, as part of the Constitution Act, 1982, Section 11(d) of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms came into effect, which provides that: In the Reference re Remuneration of Judges, it was held that the right to judicial independence was thus extended to provincial court judges in the following core characteristics: security of tenure (ie, judges can only be removed for cause, after an inquiry in which he must be given a full opportunity to be heard) financial security (ie, the right to salary of a provincial court judge is