mechanisms are used as an example to demonstrate how solvent effects can be indicated in reaction coordinate diagrams. SN1: Figure 10 shows the rate determining step for an SN1 mechanism, formation of the carbocation intermediate, and the corresponding reaction coordinate diagram. For an SN1 mechanism the transition state structure shows a partial charge density relative to the neutral ground state structure. Therefore, increasing the solvent polarity, for example from hexanes (shown as blue) to ether (shown in red), would decrease the rate of the reaction. As shown in figure 9, the starting material has approximately the same stability in both solvents (therefore ΔΔGo=ΔGopolar - ΔGonon polar is small) and the transition state is stabilized more in ether meaning ΔΔG≠ = ΔG≠polar - ΔG≠non-polar is large. SN2: For an SN2 mechanism a strongly basic nucleophile (i.e. a charged nucleophile) is favorable. In figure 11 below the rate determining step for Williamson ether synthesis is shown. The starting material is methyl chloride and an ethoxide ion which has a localized negative charge meaning it is more stable in polar solvents. The figure shows a transition state structure as the methyl chloride undergoes nucleophilic attack. In the transition state structure the charge is distributed between the Cl and the O atoms and the more polar solvent is less effective at stabilizing the transition state structure relative to the starting materials. In other words, the energy difference between the polar and non-polar solvent is greater for the ground state (for the starting material) than in the transition state. Catalysts: There are two types of catalysts, positive and negative. Positive catalysts increase the reaction rate and negative catalysts (or inhibitors) slow down a reaction and possibly cause the reaction not occur at all. The purpose of a catalyst is to alter the activation energy. Figure 12 illustrates the purpose of a catalyst in that only the activation energy is changed and not the relative thermodynamic stabilities, shown in the figure as ΔH, of the products and reactants. This means that a catalyst will not alter the equilibrium concentrations of the products and reactants but will only allow the reaction to reach equilibrium faster. Figure 13 shows the catalyzed pathway occurring in multiple steps which is a more realistic depiction of a catalyzed process. The new catalyzed pathway can occur through the same mechanism as the uncatalyzed reaction or through an alternate mechanism. An enzyme is