tax violates the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. Avery v. Midland County, Local government districts have to be roughly equal in population. Shaw v. Reno, Redistricting based on race must be held to a standard of strict scrutiny under the equal protection clause while bodies doing redistricting must be conscious of race to the extent that they must ensure compliance with the Voting Rights Act of 1965.Rucho v. Common Cause, Partisan gerrymandering claims present political questions beyond the reach of the federal courts. Takings ClauseBerman v. Parker, Under the Takings Clause of the Fifth Amendment, private property can be taken for a public purpose as long as just compensation is paid.Penn Central Transportation Co. v. New York City, Whether a regulatory action that diminishes the value of a claimant's property constitutes a "taking" of that property within the meaning of the Fifth Amendment depends on several factors, including the economic impact of the regulation on the claimant, particularly the extent to which the regulation has interfered with distinct investment-backed expectations, as well as the character of the governmental action.Lucas v. South Carolina Coastal Council. Established the "total takings" test, i.e. has the owner been deprived of all possible beneficial use of the property, in determining whether a regulation limiting use of the property constitutes a regulatory takingDolan v. City of Tigard, A government agency may not take property in exchange for benefits that are unrelated to the agency's interest in the property.Lingle v. Chevron U.S.A. Inc., Contrary to the holding of Agins v. City of Tiburon, which held that a government regulation of private property effects a taking if such regulation does not substantially advance legitimate state interests, the test of whether a governmental regulation substantially advances a legitimate state interest is irrelevant to determining whether the regulation effects an uncompensated taking of private property in violation of the Fifth Amendment.Kelo v. City of New London, Local governments may seize property for economic development purposes. Noted for converting the "public use" requirement of the Takings Clause to "public purpose." Businesses/Corporations/ContractsLaidlaw v. Organ, Established the contract law principle caveat emptor in the United States.Dartmouth College v. Woodward, The Contract Clause of the Constitution applies to both public and private corporations.Lochner v. New York, The freedom of contract is implicit in the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish, Minimum wage legislation is a valid